i
METAPHORS IN ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN
FOOTBALL NEWS AS FOUND IN THE JAKARTA POST AND
HARIAN KOMPAS FROM 15 TO 31 MARCH 2010
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
HARYO DIMASTO KRISTIYANTO
Student Number : 064214015
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATADHARMA UNIVERSITY
iv
Bar skripsi, tesis!
v
For
My Beloved Parents
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my Best Friend, ever, for His love, guidance, and
strength He has poured into me. I believe that this thesis would never have come
to its completion without His marvelous help.
My deepest gratitude goes to the dean of Faculty of Letters of Sanata
Dharma University, Prof. Dr. Praptomo Baryadi Isodorus, my major sponsor, Dra.
B. Ria Lestari, M.S., and my co-sponsor, Adventina Putranti S.S.,M.Hum. for
their guidance, suggestions, and criticism. They have gone through an energy
consuming journey in reading and correcting this thesis. To all my lecturers, my
thanks go to them for their patience and dedication. They have brought my
knowledge to a level needed to write this thesis.
I owe a special debt to my best friends, Hanz Sinelir, Yonathan Aditya
Irawan, Aditya Kurniawan, Metodius Helfi Tristeawan, and Satrio Nugroho for
being my language informants. They have shared their opinions with me. Their
insight also helped me to interpret the metaphors.
My gratitude also goes to the inner circle of my life. To my parents,
Bapak-Ibuk Sudaryanto, who always remind me of my duty, I especially dedicate
this thesis. I thank my beloved motivator and inspiration, Tian Nugraheni, whose
support from the distance always consoles me. Thanks to my sisters and brothers,
Mbak Mumun, Mas Totok, Mbak Ai’, Mas Ari, Mas Yuko, Mbak Anna, De’
viii
Thanks to Zsick, Aceofspades, Lydia Ivony, Shanti, Rindy, Tessa, my
friends for years, from whom I learned that a torture could turn into laughter. To
those who help and support me in the hectic time, all my friends in A class 2006
all my friends in MEDICO-2009, and all my friends in Legend of Light, my special thanks go to them for their companionship and deep care.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE i
APPROVAL ii
ACCEPTANCE iii
MOTTO iv
DEDICATION v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF DIAGRAM xii
LIST OF SYMBOL xiii
ABSTRACT xiv ABSTRAK xv CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study 1
B. Problem Formulation 6
C. Objectives of the Study 7
D. Definition of Terms 7
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW A. Review of Related Studies 8
B. Review of Related Theories 11
1. Metaphor 11
2. Types of Metaphor 14
3. Context and Meaning 18
C. Theoretical Framework 21
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY A. Object of the Study 22
B. Method of the Study 23
C. Research Procedure 24
1. Data Collecting 24
2. Data Analysis 24
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS A. Type of Lexical Metaphor 27
1. English Metaphor 28
a. Synaesthetic Metaphor 28
b. Anthropomorphic Metaphor 37
c. Animal Metaphor 45
d. Metaphor from Concrete to Abstract 47
e. Mixed Metaphor 48
x
2. Indonesian Metaphor 51 a. Synaesthetic Metaphor 51 b. Anthropomorphic Metaphor 60 c. Animal Metaphor 69 d. Metaphor from Concrete to Abstract 72 e. Mixed metaphor 77 f. Recapitulation 81 B. The Characteristic of metaphor in English language and
in Indonesian language 83
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION
A. Conclusion of the analysis 92
BIBLIOGRAPHY 99
APPENDICES
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES
Table 1 Example 26
Table 2 Synaesthetic metaphor in English language 30 Table 3 Referent changing of Synaesthetic metaphor in English
language to show the process of the game 36 Table 4 Referent changing of Synaesthetic metaphor in English
language to show the result of the game 37 Table 5 Anthropomorphic metaphor in English language 39 Table 6 Referent changing of Anthropomorphic metaphor in English
language to show the process of the game 44 Table 7 Referent changing of Anthropomorphic metaphor in English
language to show the process of the game 45 Table 8 Animal metaphor in English language 46 Table 9 Metaphor from concrete to abstract in English language 48 Table 10 Mixed metaphor in English language 49 Table 11 Synaesthetic metaphor in Indonesian language 52 Table 12 Referent changing of Synaesthetic metaphor in Indonesian
language to show the process of the game 58 Table 13 Referent changing of Synaesthetic metaphor in Indonesian
language to show the result of the game 59 Table 14 Anthropomorphic metaphor in Indonesian language 62 Table 15 Referent changing of Anthropomorphic metaphor in Indonesian
language to show the process of the game 67 Table 16 Referent changing of Anthropomorphic metaphor in Indonesian
language to show the process of the game 68 Table 17 Animal metaphor in Indonesian language 70 Table 18 Referent changing of Animal metaphor in Indonesian
language to show the process of the game 71 Table 19 Metaphor from concrete to abstract in Indonesian language 73 Table 20 Referent changing of metaphor from concrete to abstract
xii
LIST OF DIAGRAM
DIAGRAM
xiii
LIST OF SYMBOL
SYMBOL
: is regarded as
xiv ABSTRACT
Haryo Dimasto Kristiyanto. Metaphor in English and in Indonesian as Found in The Jakarta Post and Harian Kompas from 15 to 31 March 2010. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University, 2012
This thesis talks about one aspect of semantics. The focus of its description is metaphorical expression used to express process and result of football game in football news articles, English and Indonesian printed newspaper. The interest of choosing metaphor as the focus of this research enhances after realizing that metaphor is a fundamental part of human conceptual system. Assuming that football is a part of people around the world including English and Indonesian people, and expression about some phenomena on football game could be found in two languages, the writer is interested in studying two languages.
Based on some theories about metaphor, the writer tries to search for kinds of lexical metaphorical expression then finds the characteristic between English and Indonesian metaphor. The data source from Indonesian printed media published in Indonesia, Harian KOMPAS and English printed media published in Indonesia, Jakarta Post, from 15-31 March 2010. The data are analyzed using interactive model of analysis, which comprises of three activities, i.e. reduction, presentation, and conclusion or verification.
xv ABSTRAK
Haryo Dimasto Kristiyanto. Metaphor in English and in Indonesian as Found in The Jakarta Post and Harian Kompas from 15 to 31 March 2010. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2012
Skribsi ini membicarakan satu aspek semantik. Fokus deskripsinya adalah ekspresi metaforis yang digunakan untuk mengekspresikan proses dan hasil dari pertandingan sepakbola di artikel berita sepakbola, pada media cetak surat kabar berbahasa Inggris dan Indonesia. Minat untuk mengambil metafor sebagai fokus penelitian ini timbul setelah menyadari akan keberadaan metafor sebagai bagian yang mendasar dari konsep pemikiran manusia. Berdasarkan anggapan bahwa sepak bola sudah menjadi bagian dari masyarakat dunia termasuk masyarakat Inggris dan masyarakat Indonesia, dan ekspresi tentang fenomena dalam pertandingan sepakbola dapat ditemukan dalam dua bahasa, penulis pun tertarik untuk mengkaji kedua bahasa tersebut.
Berdasarkan beberapa teori mengenai metafora, penulis berusaha untuk menelusuri jenis-jenis ekspresi metaforis yang digunakan dan kemudian mencari karakteristik dari masing-masing metaphor dalam bahasa Inggris dan bahasa Indonesia. Data diambil dari dari media cetak berbahasa Indonesia yang dipublikasikan di Indonesia, Harian KOMPAS dan media cetak berbahasa Inggris yang dipublikasikan di Indonesia, Jakarta Post, dari tanggal 15-31 Maret 2010. Data dianalisis menggunakan analisis model interaktif yang terdiri atas tiga aktivitas, yaitu reduksi, presentasi, dan kesimpulan atau verifikasi.
1
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Football, association football, soccer, or whatever it be called, is a beautiful
game, which is loved by millions of people across the globe regardless of religion, caste
or gender. Sports play a very important role for mankind and football is the easiest of
sports to play because it is the common man‟s game. The first football game is thought
to have originated in China around 2BC (community.siutao.com), it has clearly evolved
but the basic rules and minimal equipment requirements are what make it so popular.
This game is very popular with the evidence that FIFA, football‟s world
governing body, has 208 member countries and the game has fanatical followers in 80
of those countries and is amongst the top three sports in all the other member nations. It
is played and followed by three billion people from China to England, Africa to South
America, throughout Asia and Europe (www.sportingo.com)
The World Cup, the world football championship, is the largest sporting event
in the world, played between 32 countries after qualifying stages involving 200
countries. It is watched by billions on televisions across the world.
The World Cup brings whole nations to a standstill, especially in Europe, South
America and Africa. The European Championship, Copa America, Asia Cup and Africa
Cup of Nations are just as passionately watched in their parts of the world. In
Indonesia, football also becomes favorite sports since football matches can be found in
“… Liverpool is going to release its striker, Fernando Torres if there is any club
who are willing to buy for £ 70 million or around 980 billion IDR.” That is what is said
in a national Indonesia newspaper, Kompas (July, 2010:15). Not only popular because
„football makes you healthy‟, football game is also interesting for business. Many
business areas take the benefit of football game, such as, entertainment, service, gods,
and even the village-scale gambling up to Las Vegas-gambling get the big profit.
The greatness of the football game can be shown when the information of the
match is shared, talked by one to another; the point is that communication is used.
According to Wilson stated in Siti Tarwiyah (Siti Tarwiyah, 2004:1) “communication is
one process which is used by an individual to share an information, idea, and stance or
attitude”. The key term for this definition is „to share‟. Sharing information, idea, and
attitude or stance needs an instrument called as language, one effective media for
interpersonal communication.
Still about how great football game is, all those event of football matches can
easily be found in daily news paper, whether the news is about a local, national, or
international game matches. In the newspapers which are published in Indonesia, for
example, the football news article can be read in local or national Indonesian language
newspaper such like Kedaulatan Rakyat, Jawa Pos, Suara Merdeka, and Kompas and
in English language newspaper such as The Jakarta Post.
If it is seen deeper, every news paper has its own way to communicate using
language in delivering certain message. In their way to deliver information, especially
Metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to
something to which it is not literally applicable. Originally, the word metaphor comes
from Latin word métapherein which means „to transfer‟ (Oxford Tenth Edition on CD
ROM, 2001). So, metaphor can also be defined as the substitution of one idea with
another used to assist expression or understanding.
Metaphor commonly appears in daily speaking, in spoken form. When someone
told an idea using a metaphor, such like, “Time is money, dude, and don‟t waste it!”
Time in this sentence does not mean that time is a medium of exchange, but it shows
that time is as valuable as money. Time is money entails time is very valuable
commodity or time is a limited resource. These characteristics, valuable commodity and
limited resource, are the same characteristic that the word „money‟ had. So, we can
reach the conclusion that time is as valuable as money that we would be better not to
waste it.
Metaphor also commonly appears in written form, such like in newspaper.
Metaphor is often used to give dramatic effect for the reader whatever it is used for an
exaggeration, a euphemism, or an aesthetic one. But there is tendency that where there
are phrases that are considered as taboo or rude word, they are written or spoken in the
form of metaphor. Here are some examples, how metaphors are used in football news
article which are shown in bold letters, taken from Kompas and International Herald
Tribune.
(1) Pemain Serbia bakal bertempur hingga tetes darah terakhir demi mendapatkan
tiket ke Afrika Selatan 2010. (2) Italia menjamu Bulgaria di Turin
(3) In defense is the tough, dependable Nemanja Vidic, a rock of Manchaster United International Herald Tribune, September 9, 2009; Article: “Fractious French and their abrasive coach face reckoning”; Written by: Rob Hughes)
Based on those above, that every football news articles will use metaphor in
delivering the news, the researcher wants to see metaphor in details especially metaphor
that is used in newspaper. By looking in deeply, the researcher hopes to find the
requirement how metaphors are used.
According to Saussure (Crystal, 1993:407) the connection between signifier and
signified is arbitrary. This arbitrariness depends on how the culture in society as the
speaker of the language sees the phenomena around them. Javanese people concern in
the level of politeness in the way they are speaking each other. It is seen in the way they
are using Javanese language whether they will use krama or ngoko. The tense that is
used by English language shows that English people emphasizes the importance of
time. And Eskimos have unusually large number of words for snow. All these things
happens because of the influenced of people‟s perspective on seeing the reality in their
environments.
The arbitrary relation between signifier and signified which are influenced by
the culture and social background of each individual or speaker of a language also
works in metaphor. To understand the meaning of metaphor, cross cultural
communication is completely needed. Cross cultural communication is communication
which happens between people from different countries, races, languages, religions,
educational levels, social status, or sexes. Cross cultural communication is needed
because metaphor, as a product of language which is very influenced by individual
background, is hardly understood without knowing the existence of phenomena behind.
lacks both car and lemon. To know the meaning of this metaphor, the meaning of car
and the meaning of lemon or what is car and what is lemon should be known first.
Then, by knowing the idea of a car and a lemon, the meaning of metaphor, relating „my
car‟ as „lemon‟ is revealed.
The influence of individual background in using metaphor in daily speaking
probably influences the metaphor in football news articles. Two different languages
may have different semantic rule to form metaphors, as what have stated above, that
there is close relation between language and cultural background. By realizing this
close relation, it can be seen the importance of cultural understanding in the context of
communication by taking metaphor as one language phenomenon which can explain
about that cultural understanding.
This research is focused in descriptive study about metaphor to express football
game in Indonesian and English texts, especially in daily newspaper. In case that
football has become a part in daily community life, including Indonesian and English
society, language expression in its relation to the football game can be found in these
two languages, Indonesia and English language, in their own specification. Daily
newspaper is used for this research because the language of daily newspaper is more
general, for daily newspaper is easily read by all people, children and adult, men and
women, boss and employee, etc. In order to be more focus, the newspapers that will be
used in this research are Kompas and The Jakarta Post. Kompas is chosen because
Kompas is the biggest national newspaper in circulation in 2010. Kompas prints more
than 500.000 copies daily and Kompas is the only newspaper in Indonesia that are
chosen because The Jakarta Post is the only well-known Indonesian international
newspaper and its circulation and sales now reached 50,000 copies
(www.epapercatalog.com).
Indonesian and English language is chosen for the reason of practical concern of
the need of understanding the cultural aspect in intercultural-communication, especially
for Indonesian speakers. For them, the understanding of cultural is completely needed
by seeing that Indonesian language is the mother tongue or first language of Indonesian
native speakers, and English language is the second language or first foreign language
which is taught.
Something which is important to be underlined is that this research is not
conducted in order to show the weakness of both cultures or to find which is the best
but this research is conducted to help to understand the language behavior between this
two languages.
B. Problem Formulation
Related to the explanation above, there are two problems discussed in this study
1. What are lexical metaphors used in English and Indonesian printed media?
2. What are the similarities and differences of the metaphors as found in The Jakarta
C. Objectives of the Study
In accordance to the problems formulated above, the objectives of the study are
as follow: to know the form of lexical metaphors in Indonesian text and in English text
and to know the similarities and differences of the metaphors as found in The Jakarta
Post and Harian Kompas from 15 to 31 March 2012.
D. Definition of terms
There are some terms used in this study. They are metaphor and semantic feature.
1. Metaphor
David Crystal in his book entitled The Cambridge Encyclopedia of English and
Language: Second Edition defines metaphor as a figurative expression in which one notion is
described in terms usually associated with another (1993: 70).
2. Semantic feature
According to Crystal, semantic feature or semantic component is an element of a
word‟s meaning, for example the element of word girl are [+ female], [+ young], and [+
8 CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
This chapter consists of three parts; they are review of related study, review of
related theory, and theoretical frame work. In this chapter, the review of related study,
the researcher is going to show that his research is different from other research, so that
this research is not repeating any previous research and hopefully this research is
favorable for everyone who reads it.
In the review of related theory and theoretical framework, the researcher wants
to explain the theories that are used in this research and how those theories give
contributions to solve the problem of this study.
A. Review of Related Study
In order to support the analysis, the researcher uses some related studies which
more or less have the same topic or theme. Those related studies, are taken from some
undergraduate theses which have almost the same research with the researcher topic,
and it will be helpful for additional understanding of the researcher
Helena Heruningsih Driarta Vera (1998) in her thesis ‗The Intepretation of
Metaphor Used in Advertisement’ said that metaphor implied a figurative comparison
between two things. Metaphor also becomes a device frequently used in
advertisements. The metaphors employed in an advertisement are used to attract the
readers‘ attention. Nevertheless, the most important thing is that those metaphors can
metaphors have figurative meaning, a sentence containing a metaphor cannot be
comprehended if we read it literally.
Her thesis analyzes whether metaphor used in advertisement can create an
independent comprehension and to identify any condition needed to come to that
comprehension and to explain whether there are any differences between metaphor
used in advertisement and in news magazines and women‘s magazines on the basis of
the target audience and to identify the differences.
In her thesis, she found that the metaphor used in advertisements could be
understood independently because they are clear enough and/or commonly used. They
are three conditions needed to come to an independent comprehension, namely
activation of literal sense, awareness of the figurative sense of a metaphor, and
activation of the figural sense. In some cases readers need to know the product, its
brand, and the picture in an advertisement. These aspects, related to the whole text, will
facilitate the interpretation of a metaphor. The metaphors in advertisement in news
magazines are different from those in women‘s magazines. The advertisements in
women‘s magazines contain metaphors that imply ‗femininity‘. Those metaphors imply
that women are passive, refined, and delicate. The metaphors used in advertisements in
news magazines tend to be ‗masculine‘. The masculinity is related to the stereotype of
men, namely active, strong, and coarse.
Siti Tarwiyah. (2004) in her thesis ‗Metafora Pengungkapan Pertandingan
Sepakbola Pada Piala Dunia 2002 dalam Teks Berbahasa Indonesia dan Berbahasa
metaphorical expression used to express game processes and result during World Cup
2002 in Indonesia and English printed media.
Based on some theories about metaphor and cultures of east and west cluster,
she tried to search for kinds of metaphorical expressions, lexical and grammatical, and
socio-cultural aspects in the two languages. She used the data taken from Indonesian
printed media: Bola, Tempo, Jawa Pos and English printed one: Daily Mail, Times,
Newsweek.
The result of her thesis showed that both Indonesian and English use lexical
metaphors with four specifications, i.e. anthropomorphic, animal, synaesthetic, and
form concrete to abstract metaphors, and grammatical metaphors with two
specifications, i.e. ideational and interpersonal metaphor. The choice of specific lexical
metaphorical expression is related to situational and cultural aspects while the choice of
grammatical metaphorical expression is only influenced by situational aspect.
Journalists try to prevent readers from boredom by choosing popular words.
Meanwhile, cultural effects are seen from more violence words found in Indonesian
metaphorical expression and specific terms related to farming for Indonesian terms, and
technology for English terms. Ideational-grammatical-metaphorical expressions are
signified by more compact grammatical formulations intended to describe certain
referents. The use of their presentations is for economical reason in written expression
besides for grammatical variation. Interpersonal-grammatical-metaphoric expressions
are identified through modalities and adjuncts.
Actually the example of the related studies has some differences from this one
characteristics of metaphor expression which occur in English language and compare to
metaphor expression that are used in Indonesian language. Besides, this research will
only use the lexical metaphor as the base of the analysis. This thesis may be similar
with Siti Tarwiyah‘s thesis but basically this thesis is not repeating hers, because the
source data taken are different. Her research only took the data from football match
articles in world cup 2002, the greatest event of football game, while this research takes
the data from all regular football matches in daily newspaper, which means that the
language use in the article will be more general. This research may be useful enough to
find out if there is any relation between the metaphors in English language and
metaphors in Indonesian language which are represented in football news articles in
present.
B. Review of Related Theory 1. Metaphor
The concept of metaphor is based on the paradigm of relativism by Sapir (1921)
and Whorf (1956) which conceive that meaning as a mental formation. It happens
because human beings can not be separated from their social environment and that
social environment affects the way of human being to think and explain the realities of
life (Sapir in Sampson, 1980: 82-83).
The discussions about metaphor have been studied by linguists. According to
Guinn and Merder (1987:35), metaphor is a figure of speech that implies a comparison.
The definition above, nonetheless, is too vague when we look at the following
(1) Adam was as happy as Eve.
Sentence (1) is one form of comparison between Adam and Eve; that Adam was happy
and so was Eve. However, if Adam and Eve are names for human beings, that sentence
is not metaphor because they are essentially the same; they are both human beings.
Even if Adam is a name for human being and Eve is not a name of human being, the
name of animal, for example and vice versa, sentence (1) is not metaphor either. Since
not all forms of comparison are metaphor, the definition above cannot be used in this
study.
Brooks and Warren (1961:274) in their book explain that the word metaphor
derives from Greek word that has a meaning ‗to transfer‘. A metaphorical word transfer
a meaning applied literally in one kind object or idea to another by analogy.
According to Storie and Matson (1994:67) metaphor is a figurative comparison
in that it compares things that are essentially different but which have some point of
similarity. They also say that metaphor is the implied resemblance of things which are
ostensibly very different. Metaphor is implied since it does not make use of like and as.
Other linguist, Damon, Espey, and Mulhauser (1966:78) give a support to Storie
and Matson‘s opinion. They say that metaphor is a figurative comparison in which the
words like and as are dropped out, and the primary and secondary terms are jammed
together. Metaphor does not state a comparison, but it suggests a comparison.
Johnson said that metaphor (‗carry beyond‘) is a figure of speech that refers in
literal terms to one thing while at the same time suggesting something else (1972:26).
According to Sudaryanto in Linguistik (1983:145), word consists of form and
meaning. Form is built by components, phonemes; meaning is also built by some
components, semantic properties. Actually the meaning of a word is one; which means
that one word only has one meaning. He explained his theory in word ―kancil‖ (2.a.);
kancil means a kind of certain animal which has some meaning components (semantics
property) [+animal] [+four legged] [+tricky]. When one or some of the component is
used for other word to show the similar characteristics, then, it is called as metaphor.
(2.a.) Dia memang betul-betul kancil – he is really ―kancil‖
(2.b.) Dia memang betul-betul cerdik – he is really tricky
It is said that the first systematic treatment of metaphor is found in Poetics,
where Aristotle assert that metaphor ‗is the application to something of a name
belonging to something else, either from genus to species, or from the species to genus,
or from a pieces to another species, or according to analogy.‘ (Steinhart and E.F.
Kitany. 1994:2453)
According to Carlshamre, there are three criteria to recognize metaphor.
Carlshamre said that when metaphorical utterances taken literally, they becomes
meaningless, obviously false, or trivial.
Three criteria have been proposed: metaphorical utterances are when taken literally (1) meaningless, (2) obviously false, or (3) trivial. These are, of course, not alternatives, the question rather being whether one can get by with only (1), or will need (2) and (3) as well. (Carlshamre, 1988:8)
According to Steinhart (Steinhart and E.F. Kitany. 1994:2455), metaphor
interpretation can also follow one of several routes (1) According to the Elliptical
Simile Theory and most, but not all Comparison Theories, ‗S is P‘ metaphorically
meaning as such. Some have argued that such interpretations are ill suited to other
grammatical forms of metaphor. (2) According to the Abstraction Theory, metaphorical
meaning is obtained by rising metaphorical predicates to a more abstract level at which
there is no semantic incongruity. Feature Transfer Theory adopts this strategy. Thus
‗Theaetetus gave birth to an idea‘ metaphorically means Theaetetus produced idea,
since ‗produced‘ is an abstract version of ‗gave birth‘ that is not semantically
incongruous. (3) According to Analogy Theory, offshoot of an interactionist view of
metaphor, ‗S is P‘ metaphorically means S is analogous to P. Interpreting metaphors
requires specifying analogous domains and the homeomorphisms between the domains.
One advantage of this theory is that it is the best suited to capture the ways in which
metaphors are extended, that is, how terms are used from the semantic domain of the
vehicle to elaborate aspect of the topic.
So, whatever the metaphor is, there is a basic principle that metaphor is a figure
of speech in language which consists of two elements, they are literal term and
figurative term. Literal term is the concept actually discussed. Figurative term is the
thing to which it is compared. Metaphor is likely to be said as utterance meaning
because the use of metaphor can only be seen in the context. Metaphor is used since the
codes which is available in language cannot exactly represent all concepts and ideas in
human mind as language users.
2. Types of Metaphor
Formation of a metaphor involves two aspects: lexical and grammatical. Each aspect
with the specific word that refers to reality or to some extent. A word ‗flooded in’ in
sentence ‗Protest flooded in‘ is an example of lexical metaphor. A word ‗flooded in’
which usually refers to water that overflows in large numbers, is used to refer to protest
which come in large quantities. Congruent expression for those sentences is ‗Protest
were received in large quantities’ or ‗Even many people protested’. Grammatical
metaphor is conceived as an incongruent realization of a given semantic configuration
in the lexicogrammar. ‗Adam was unhappy so Eve left’ is a congruent sentence. This
sentence will become incongruent if it is said ‗Adam’s unhappiness led to Eve’s
departure’. This sentence is said as incongruent because the word ‗happy’ which
describes situation and should be expressed by adjective, in that sentence is expressed
by noun, similarly the word ‗departure’ which actually describes a process and should
be expressed by verb. (Halliday, 1985:320; Martin, 1985:395)
Although each of these forms is marked by different characteristics, actually
ones cannot exists alone without the other. One word can be identified as lexical
metaphor only if this word occurs in certain context of grammatical metaphor. The
presence of grammatical metaphor is also a form of combination of some lexical
metaphors.
Mansoer Pateda (1986:114) divided lexical metaphor into three types, they are:
(1) anthropomorphic metaphors, (2) animal metaphors, and (3) synaesthetic metaphors.
Another linguist, Edi Subroto (1986:49-51, 2011:131-134) followed Ullman
(1972:214-218) added one type of metaphor which is metaphor from concrete to abstract; and in
this research, the researcher added one type of metaphor which is mixed metaphor. The
Anthropomorphic metaphors use a part of human body as an expression to
reveal phenomena outside of human beings and vice versa, use a part of plant‘s
segment or inanimate object to address human body. The English examples are: the
lungs of the world, death ball; and the Indonesian examples are: bola mata,
kaki-tangan.
Animal metaphors use the nature of animal or part of animal body as the
expression of metaphor. The English examples is: pony tail; the Indonesian examples
are: kambing hitam, kutu buku, etc.
Synaesthetic metaphors are created by transferring a respond of human senses
from one sense to another. The English examples are: hard music, soft copy; the
Indonesian examples are: bicaranya pedas, batinnya perih, etc.
Metaphor which is created by the change of concrete form to abstract can be
seen in English phrase: curled effort; and Indonesian phrase: karirnya mencorong,
dibelit cidera, etc.
Mixed metaphor is formed by two component of lexical metaphor. It means the
metaphor expressions in one sentence can be included as synaesthetic metaphor,
anthropomorphic metaphor, animal metaphor, or metaphor from concrete to abstract.
According to its function, grammatical metaphor is distinguished into ideational
and interpersonal metaphor. Ideational metaphor represents process, whether it is
material, mental, or relational process. A sentence Marry saw something wonderful;
nominal (conscious being) + verbal (perception) + nominal (thing or fact) if it is
expressed by Marry came upon a wonderful sight has representation changes.
interaction what is happened, whether it is the relation of giving or receiving the
information (proposition) or the relation of giving or receiving thing or service. Clause
John, the bell is ringing and I am in the bathroom is an example of incongruent service
request which is realized by using indicative declarative clause. (Halliday, 1985:321)
So, in brief, metaphors are distinguished according to their form, meaning or
function, and the type of expression. According to its form, metaphor can be
distinguished into lexical and grammatical metaphor. Lexical metaphor is distinguished
by the type of expression into anthropomorphic metaphor, animal metaphor,
syanaesthetic metaphor, metaphor form of concrete to abstract, and mixed metaphor.
Grammatical metaphor is distinguished according to its meaning into ideational and
interpersonal metaphor. The type of metaphor can be described as follows.
3. Context and Meaning
Language which ‗comes‘ in society is considered as bi-dimensional system. It is
said so for the meaning of language is determined by the existence and relationship of
its sign, besides of the speaker and the social context and situation (Aminuddin,
1988:36)
Context is one factor which determines the true form of meaning. Linguistic
context itself still cannot underline the formulation of meaning in the usage—
connotative meaning. Malinowski, in this context, said that to understand certain text, a
text cannot be separated from its context of situation and its context of culture. (in
Halliday, 1985:7)
According to Halliday, context of situation involves some levels, first (1) field
of discourse, something which happens to be used as the background of linguistic form,
it may be social context or cultural context comes within; (2) tenor of discourse, refers
to the first speaker and partner of speaking, their status and role determines the
linguistic forms used; (3) the mode of discourse, it can be associated with the type of
utterance or genre—didactic, expository, persuasive, etc.—and also the conveyor
media. (1985:12)
Situational meaning and contextual meaning emerge as the result of the relation
between context and speech. The three context of situation above, is divided by
Mansoer Pateda (2001:116) into eleven contexts: (1) context of effigy, refers to the
speaker and the partner of speaking include their sex, status, age, social-economical
background; (2) context of situation, for example: peaceful condition, crowded
context of time; (7) context of place; (8) context of object; (9) context of instrument;
(10) context of linguistic; and (11) context of language, refers to the language used.
It cannot be denied that context, especially context of socio-cultural of
language user, is the basic factor to understand the meaning of linguistic unit because
language is not necessary for the formulation of thought but is part of the thinking
process (Bolinger & A. Sears in Aminuddin, 1988:19).
Meaning is essential in language. Meaning becomes a part of human‘s
linguistics knowledge. By knowing the meaning of utterances in a language, the one
can use the language. Fromkin (1988:5) said ―…, knowing a language is knowing that
certain sound sequences signify certain concept or meaning.‖
According to Bloomfield (in Crystal. 1993:101), meaning is something that can
be deduced solely from a study of the situation in which speech is used – the stimulus
(S) that led someone to speak (r), and response (R) that result from this speech (s).
S ---> r ………….. s ---> R
In Bloomfield‘s example, Jill is hungry, sees an apple (S) and ask Jack to get it
for her (r); this linguistic stimulus (s) leads to jack getting the apple (R). In order to get
certain response from the partner of speaking, the speaker should choose the word that
can deliver the meaning of their intention, for the meaning is contained in words.
A word could have primary meaning and secondary meaning. Primary meaning
is the meaning in mind, if it is uttered without context. Secondary meaning is the
meaning of words in context (Larson. 1988:8). Primary meaning is also called as
meaning is also called as connotative meaning or associative meaning (Leech,
1974:10-15).
Nida called primary meaning or conceptual meaning as central meaning,
because the other meaning in a same word comes from this central meaning. Whether it
has close relation or not, other meaning in a same word has a connection with this
central meaning, a word ‗head‘ for example, the hat on his head, the head of the line,
the head of the firm, the head of cabbage, and revolt came to a head (1975:11)
Words will be meaningful only in systematic contrast, in order to distinguish
lingual meaning from a lexical item, a word needs to be contrasted. The contrast of one
lexeme can be seen by finding the component of meaning (Nida. 1975:32-33). Crystal
called this component meaning as semantic components or semantic features. “A
further way to study lexical meaning is by analyzing lexemes into a series of semantic
features, or components.” (1992:107). The approach was originally devised by
anthropologist as a means of comparing vocabulary from different cultures, and it has
been developed by semanticists as a general framework for the analysis of meaning.
Whole system of relationships can be established using small set of
components, for example the component adult or non-adult and male or female can be
used for the following example; man could be analyzed as [+adult], [+human], and
[+male]; woman could be analyzed as [+adult], [+human], and [+female]; boy could be
analyzed as adult], [+human], [+male]; and girl could be analyzed as
C. Theoretical Framework
This study uses the empirical analysis. It means that this study tries to describe
and explain metaphors in English text and in Indonesian text. The aim of this research
is describing the variation of lexical metaphors which are used in football news in
Indonesian text and in English text and how it can be formed in that way related in
semantics aspects. Besides, the researcher is going to find out the characteristics of the
metaphors which occur in English text and which occur in Indonesian text, by seeing
the metaphoric expression used and also describing it if there is any influence of
socio-cultural background to the expression chosen.
To answer the first question, the researcher uses the theory of metaphor. By
using this theory, the researcher tries to find and recognize lexical metaphors in articles
whether one phrase or sentence contains metaphor or not and describe the formation of
those lexical metaphors by seeing its semantic features.
To answer the second question, the researcher compares the expression used
and the semantic properties between lexical metaphors which are used in English text
22 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
In this chapter the researcher gives the description on the methodology used in
conducting this study in order to do a systematic research. There are three parts of this
chapter: the object of the study, the method of the study, and the research procedure. In
the object of the study, the researcher describes what the object of the study is and where
they are coming from. In the method of the study, the researcher describes the method to
collect the data. And the last part is research procedure, which is divided into two parts
data collection and data analysis.
A. Object of the study
A research always needs one or more groups of subjects to be investigated.
These groups of subjects are part of a larger group and become representatives of the
larger group (Sprinthall et al 1991:27). Data sources is the main thing that must be
clarified in the research. Data source is the source where the data can be obtained. Data
is meant to be research material, not the raw materials of research (Sudaryanto, 1983:3).
In this research, the writer is going to observe the metaphor in football articles in
daily newspapers. They are Jakarta Post and Kompas taken from 15-31 March 2010.
These newspapers are chosen because the writer wants to find the characteristics and the
utterance of the metaphor from two points of view: Jakarta Post as the representative of
Indonesian printed media published in English language, Kompas as the representative
Data obtained from the data source are the sentences which express processes
and results of football match metaphorically. Metaphorical expression shall include an
expression that refers to the process or outcome of the game until the end of the game, as
well as expressions that interpret the views of the community to a football match.
B. Method of Study
It is explained previously that this research is descriptive-comparative study that
focuses on the metaphorical expression on process and result of football matches in
English and Indonesian. So, this research is included in qualitative-descriptive study.
Descriptive study aims to describe qualitatively in the form of words and not in the form
of mathematical number or statistics (Lindolof, 1994:21). Qualitative-descriptive study
is aimed to reveal a variety of qualitative information with a thorough description to
describe accurately the properties of a thing, situation, or phenomena, not limited to just
collecting data but includes the analysis and interpretation of data (Sutopo, 1996:8).
In this regard, the provision of data in this research is conducted with the usage
of metaphors to express the process and results of football matches in the football
articles of daily newspapers. Considering the context and the use of construction is very
important to identify the expressions, including metaphors expression, in order to
interpret aspects that underlie the use of those expressions.
Linguistic data that have been used to reveal a football game should be real fact,
worthy to be noted and pondered because it later could be used as a comparison of
C. Research Procedure
1. Data collection
Data collection in a study contains the consequences about the validity of such
data. Based on the kinds of data, this research was done by using non-participant method
continued by note-taking technique, which is gathering and taking notes on how the use
of language that includes metaphorical expressions reveal the process and outcome of
the game. This technique is applied because the data used is written. Data which are
already collected then classified according to the each type.
To determine whether the data was a metaphor or not the theory of recognizing
metaphor is employed. Every sentence or phrase considered to contain a metaphor is
picked up. Then the researcher gathers those sentences and phrases and noted where
they occurred. These sentences and phrases are the raw data. The raw data does not
consist of separate metaphor. Then, those metaphors are divided into two big groups: the
metaphor using English and the metaphor using Indonesian.
2. Data Analysis
Qualitative research is flexible and open. When the data obtained is felt not enough, the
researcher can continue to collect data while the researcher is analyzing data
collected. Data analysis techniques used in this study is the interactive model of
analysis developed by Miles and Huberman. Analysis of data with this technique
includes three major components of activities, namely: data reduction, data
Data reduction is a step for the researcher to make the disclosure of language
variation associated with the problems examined. In this study, data is derived only
from sentences that reveal the process and results metaphorically of the football game.
Data that has been reduced are presented according to the form and function,
English and Indonesian lexical metaphor. As described earlier, a metaphor can be said as
lexical metaphor if in realization of non-metaphorical can be replaced by another
collocation word.
By the type of expression, lexical metaphor is divided into five groups: (1)
anthropomorphic metaphor, (2) animal metaphors, (3) metaphor from concrete to
abstract, (4) synaesthetic metaphor, and (5) mixed metaphor. After the identification of
form and function of metaphor symbols of each expression, metaphors expression
owned by the two language communities can be determined, and later it is referred to as
a universal metaphor, while the specific metaphors in accordance with the socio-cultural
of each language communities, later it is referred to as metaphor specific. This
expression explored under the situational context as the background of the emergence of
each type of existing metaphors.
Data presented in this study represents terms or things that have been cut into a
phrase to simplify the information presented. So, the data is no longer serving long
sentences in the form of a series that will take up much space and time to the
presentation. For ease of understanding and to capture a whole and intact, the data is
presented in a form of table. The table emphasizes the most important components of
referent change between those contextual meaning and central meaning. It can be seen in
the table 1 below.
Table 1
Example
No Expression (Contextual Meaning)
Referent
Change Central Meaning
No. Data
1 2 3 4 5
01
AC Millan were hammered4-0 at Manchester United - [+ repeat]
- [+ hit] - [+ break] - [+ metal] - [+ hammer]
match fight
AC Millas were
completely defeated4-0 at Manchester United - [+ repeat]
- [+ hit] - [+ break] - [+ defense]
026
In a form of table, it will easier to be understood how a metaphor expression
were hammered, which is actually a contextual meaning, be used in sentence to refer to
a condition of being completely defeated. The using of the metaphor expression were
hammered to refer to a condition of being completely defeated implies a referent change:
a football match is regarded as a fighting.
Conclusion or verification is based on all data obtained either contained in the
data reduction and presentation of data. If the conclusion is less stable because of the
lack of formulation of the reduction and presentation of data, the researcher re-do the
27 CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS RESULT
In this chapter the researcher explains about the answer of the problem
formulation in chapter one. Based on the problem formulation, the researcher
discusses the lexical metaphor and its expressions that are used in English football
news articles, especially metaphor expressions which represent the process and
result of that football match and to discuss that metaphor formation especially in
its referent changes and compare it with metaphors that are used in Indonesian
language. From the referent changes, it can be learnt and analyzed the
characteristics of those two groups of metaphor, English metaphor and Indonesian
metaphor.
A. Type of Lexical Metaphor
According to Johnson (Johnson, 1972:26), the disclosure of the variation
of lexical metaphor is marked lexically by the specific word with a certain
meaning that refers to reality. So that, in analyzing those variations, contexts of
situation should be considered as one important aspect.
If it is seen by its expression, the following are the data obtained from
the football news articles, they are: anthropomorphic metaphors, animal
metaphors, synaesthetic metaphors, metaphors from concrete to abstract, and
1. English Metaphor
a. Synaesthetic Metaphors
Synaesthetic metaphor is a metaphor which is created by transferring a
response of human senses from one sense to another. Synaesthetic comes from a
Greek word σύν(syn), “together” and αἴσθησις(aisthēsis), “sensation”. Here are
some examples of synaesthetic metaphor:
(1) Gilardino hit backin the 60th and 87th minutes.
(2) In a fight, John hit Adam.
Sentence (1) consists of metaphor expression, hit. In the sentence (1) the
word hit assumes an opponent as an enemy. Opponent and enemy, both of them
share the same category [+human]. The expression hit also assumes a match as a
fight and both of them are concrete phenomena. A match and a fight share a
similar category [+competition] or [+rivalry] but actually those expressions
should be treated in a different way; a rival in a match should be faced with a skill
or knowledge in particular field, whether an enemy in a fight should be faced with
a martial-art. Besides, in sentence (1) there is transferring response of human
sense from [+hand] to [+feet], for in a football game a player attacks the opponent
using their feet in order to kick the ball into their net.
So, we can go to a conclusion that words hit which is used in sentence (1)
can be included as synaesthetic metaphor, but words hit in sentence (2) is not a
metaphor at all because that word directly describes the meaning of the true event.
All those expressions which are included in synaesthetic metaphor and its
Table 2, non-metaphorical expressions in the contextual meaning column,
describes the meaning and relation between a sign and a referent of a metaphor.
The phrase in contextual meaning column is written based on the context of each
expression and shared semantic features between metaphorical and
non-metaphorical expressions that is shown below:
(5) Portugal midfielder fedSergio Aguero.
(6) It would be bitter if we lost.
(7) Messi destroys Zaragosa
Sentence (5) uses regular daily occasion, meal, to express the process of
football game play in word fed that represents to pass the ball so that the ball is
regarded as a food. We can draw into this conclusion, that process of football
game is expressed using regular daily occasion‟s term such as meal, only if those
expressions share the same semantic features: to supply or to give an important
thing, in this case the ball is considered as important as food, to sustain life.
The same thing happens in sentences (6) and (7) those metaphor
expressions share the same semantic feature with its central meaning. Sentence (6)
uses term of taste to express the result of football match. Word bitter which
literary means a sharp, pungent and not sweet taste represents a condition that
causes pain or unhappiness, in this case is being defeated. A conclusion that taste
bitter may represent pain condition of being defeated only because those
expression share the same semantic features [+ not sweet] and [+ unhappiness]. In
sentence (7) the word destroy assumes an opponent as a thing that can be
no longer exist or cannot be repaired. The word destroy should be followed by
noun or an object that can be destroyed, for example, building, glass, etc and not
by an opponent. In this context, the word destroy is used to show the result of
football game in which one team has been completely defeated only by one
player—Messi, that can destroy the defense of the team, so that Messi is able to
score a goal. We can draw into this conclusion that in this context, the word
destroy means defeat only because they share the same semantic features [+ ruin]
and [+ unrepaired].
Table 2
Synaesthetic metaphors in English Language
No Expression (Contextual Meaning)
Referent
Change Central Meaning
04 angled shoot into the net an angled shoot into the net
Barca go top after Ibrahimovic downs
10
then fired low into the corner
then strongly kicklow into the corner
Luis Perea sliced the ball into his own net
Luis Perea lightly kicked the ball into his own net the ball toSergio
16 skillful playerwill be relishing
Malounda, in dazzling form the team stirring 3-2 - to make something move slightly
Xabi Alonso and Alvaro Arbeloa help the team arousing 3-2
- [+ waste] form the right wing - [+ movement]
Ronaldo feint in form the right wing opening at the edge of the arena
Messi formed a brilliant chance to shot the ball at the edge of the arena - operate a vehicle - [+ move] toward the penalty area - take (the ball) forward past opponents with slight touches of the feet or the stick quickly been lifted - [+ depression] - [+ sadness]
28
Youngster Jamie Ashdown who suffered a torrid six-minute spell midway - [+ very hot] - [+ extreme] - [+ emotion] - [+ weather]
match weather
Youngster Jamie Ashdown who suffered as extremely difficult six-minutespell midway - [+ very hot]
- [+ extreme] - [+ difficult] - [+ time]
016
From the data in the table 2, it can be seen that some of the reference
changes in English metaphor are dominated by terms of fighting/rivalry/battle to
express football game play. Especially for conditions that show the process and
result of the game: win over or lose. The loser team is the head that suffers and to
become a victim whether the winner team is the other head that have the power
and authority over the opponent, or the head that is able to survive from the game.
There are some other activities that are used to express the result and process of
football game such as slicing, eating, dancing, driving, etc. In detail, the process
of referent changes of synaesthetic metaphor and its expressions can be seen in
the table 3 and 4 below.
From the data in table 3 and 4, there are 13 types of referent changes in
English synaesthetic metaphor that are used to describe the process of football
match and there are 7 types of referent changes in English synaesthetic metaphor
that are used to describe the result of football match. From those referent changes,
each metaphor expression may occur in different syntactic structure, for example,
Table 3
Referent changing of synaesthetic metaphors in English Language
to show process of the game
No Referent
Change Metaphor expressions
Occur-verb : salivating displaying
enthusiasm 1 7.6 %
3 match waste
verb: have been trashed considered as unqualified
noun: the Argentine wizard skillful
Table 4
Referent changing of synaesthetic metaphors in English Language
To show result of the game
No Referent Change
Examples metaphor expressions of Synaesthetic metaphor
Occur-rences
Percen tage
1 match fight
verb: were hammered completely defeated, destroys completely defeated, downs completely defeated, survived to be able to continue
noun: demolition defeat
5 45.4 %
2
match something
taste
adjective: bitter sad 1 9.1 %
3 match
mixing verb: stirring arousing 1 9.1 %
4
match something
fading
verb: faded finally defeated 1 9.1 %
5 team ship verb : docked stayed 1 9.1 %
6 opponent
dirt verb: swept completely defeated 1 9.1 %
7 sadness
darkness noun: gloom sadness 1 9.1 %
Total 11 100%
b. Anthropomorphic Metaphors
Anthropomorphic metaphors use a part of human body as an expression
to reveal outside phenomena of human beings and vice versa, use a part of plant‟s
segment or inanimate object to address phenomena of human body. Here are some
examples of anthropomorphic metaphor:
(8) Fiorentina comes back to beat Napoli.
(10) Arsenal sneak win.
(11) She sneaks a chocolate from the box.
In sentence (8) the word beat assumes a match as a fight, the word beat
literary means to strike a person or animal repeatedly and violently so as to hurt
and punish them, but in this context the word beat means to defeat the oponent by
attacking its defense repeatedly so that the opponent can not react and fight back
in a match. The word beat and defeat share the same semantic features [+
powerful] and [+ attack].
In sentence (10) the word sneak assumes match as a stealing activity and it
seems that a victory is taken by stealing and not by a fair competition, but actually
in this context the word sneak refers to a surprising condition that Arsenal which
was not predicted to win competition finally get the victory. So, it can be said that
Arsenal stealthy wins the game. The word sneak and stealthy win share the same
semantic feature [+ unpredictably].
Fiorentina and Arsenal are the name of Football club and they are
inanimate objects but in sentence (8) and (10), Fiorentina and Arsenal are
regarded to become animate objects because they are given the ability to beat and
to sneak, the characteristic of human being. Because of this reason, metaphor
expression in sentence (8) and (10) could be included as anthropomorphic
metaphor.
Sentences (9) and (11) are the examples of non-metaphorical expression of
the previous metaphor expression. All those expressions which are included in
Table 5
Anthropomorphic Metapor in English Language
No Expression (Contextual Meaning)
Referent
Change Central Meaning
No.
Arsenal tried to catch up them locked together on 64 points stayed on the same position on 64 points - [+ same place] - [+ unmoved] - [+ standing]
005
05
Aston villa lost ground with 0-0 draw at Stoke
Aston Villa was failed (to continue the match) with 0-0 draw at stoke City
- [+ fall] - [+ position]
006
06
07
Liverpool climbed above Manchester City - [+ process] - [+ great excitement] - [+ disturbance] couple of months to stand a chance of qualifying for the Champion League - [+ forcefully] - [+ great excitement] - [+ vigorous]
- [+ impressive]
015
09
the deathof Italian soccer
the end of Italian Soccer season propping up the table season in the last position of the
Maurinho, the jewel in
- [+ attractive] back to beat Sporting Gijon 3-1 effortto beat Sporting Gijon 3-1
Barcelona win 4-2 keep them neck and neck with Real Madrid keep them equal with real Madrid
masteryofthe dead ball could be…
masteryofthe set piece could be…
Real struck to put the host 3-1 ahead - [+ attack] - [+ forceful] - [+ harmful]
match fight
Real make a forceful attempt to score goals to put the host 3-1 ahead
- [+ attack] - [+ forceful]
20
Real was the worst nightmare
Real was the difficult opponent an emphatic 4-0 win over Borton
- to make something warmer
MU got excited for the champion league with an emphatic 4-0 win over Borton
- process of providing something with an edge or border - [+ decrease] - [+ gradually]
- [- opponent reaction] - [+ border]
- to cause somebody lose
- [+ decrease] - [+ gradually]
- [- opponent reaction] 057
23
Arseal will fight fire with fire
From the data from table 5, anthropomorphic metaphor that represent the
process and result of football game are the metaphor expresions that usually use
ability as human being as an expression to reveal outside phenomena of human
beings. This process also can be called as humanizing process. It is clearly seen in
the most subject of anthropomorpic metaphor, a name of football team that is an
inanimate object, this subject is given the ability of human being as an animate
(12) Real Madrid fought back to beat Sporting 3-1.
(13) Sporting stunned Bernabau.
The subjects of the metaphor expression in sentence (12) Real Madrid and
(13) Sporting are the name of football team which gets the abilities of being
human: fought back and stunned.
Beside the occurence of humanizing process, there is an opposite process
which is called as dehumanizing process which occurs in small number.
Dehumanizing process is characterized by an appearance of singular or plural
human object as the subject of the metaphor expression. Besides, its referent
change uses the terms that show the quality of a person who participates in the
process of football game. It can be seen in the following sentence.
(14) Maurinho, the jewel in Serie’s A crown
In sentence (21) phrase a jewel in Serie’s A crown assumes Marinho, a
skillful coach that always lead his team to be a champion, as a precious stone.
Jewel and Maurinho shared similar semantic feature [+ valuable]. Jewel is
precious stone that is more expensive and valuable than gold and Maurinho is a
skillful coach that is valuable for his team to lead them as a winner.
From the metaphor expressions that are used in those referent changes,
most of them are dominated by term of fight/rivalry/battle to express the process
and result of the game. There is a tendency that the humanizing process is used to
show a condition: the winner team is those that has the power an authority over
