Emotion Regulation: Past, Present, Future
Ja m es J. G ro ss
Stanford U niversity, California, U S A
M o d er n em o t io n th eo r ies em p h a sise t h e a d ap t ive va lu e o f em o t io n s. E m o -tio n s a r e by n o m ean salway sh elp fu l, h owever. T h ey o ft en m u st b e r egu lat ed . T h e st u d y o f em o t io n regu la tio n h a s it s o r igin s in t h e psych oa n a lytic a n d st r ess a n d co p in g tr a d it io n s. R ecen t ly, in crea sed in t erest in em o t io n regu la -tio n h a s led t o cru cia l b o u n d a r y a m b igu it ies t h at n ow t h reat en p rogress in th is d o m a in . I t is a rgu ed t h at d ist in ct io n s n eed t o b e m ad e b et ween (1) r egu lat io n ofem o t io n a n d regu la tio nbyem o t io n ; (2) em o t io n r egu lat io n in self a n d em o t io n regu la tio n in o th er s; a n d (3) co n scio u s a n d n o n co nscio u s em o t io n regu la t io n . U sin g a p ro cess m o d el o f em o t io n gen er at io n , th is review co n sid er s p ro m isin g r esea r ch o n b a sic p ro cesses a n d in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in em o t io n r egu lat io n a n d p o ses ®ve t heo r etica l ch a llen ges.
INTRODUCTION
C o n t em p o r a r y co n cep t io n s o f em o t io n em p h a sise em o t io n s’ p o sit ive r o le in a d a p t a t io n (e.g . L a za r u s, 1991 ; To o b y & C o sm id es, 19 90). E m o t io n s a r e sa id t o t a ilo r co gn it ive sty le t o sit u a t io n a l d em a n d s (C lo r e, 199 4), t o fa cil-it a te d ecisio n -m a k in g (O a t ley & Jo h n so n -L a ird , 198 7 ), t o p r ep a r e t h e in d ivid u a l fo r r a p id m o t o r r esp o n ses (F r ijd a , 19 86), a n d t o p r o m o t e lea r n in g (C a h ill, P r in s, Web er, & M cG a u gh , 1 994 ). I n a d d it io n t o t h ese in t r a -o r ga n ism ic fu n ct i-o n s, em -o t i-o n s a ls-o a r e t h -o u gh t t -o h ave im p -o r t a n t s-o cia l fu n ct io n s. F o r exa m p le, em o t io n s a r e h eld t o p ro vid e in fo r m a t io n a b o u t b eh avio u r a l in t en t io n s (E k m a n , F r iesen , & E llswo r t h , 197 2; F r id lu n d , 199 4 ), t o give clu es a s t o wh et h er so m et h in g is go o d o r b a d (Wa ld en , 199 1 ), a n d t o ¯exib ly scr ip t co m p lex so cia l b eh avio u r (Aver ill, 1 980 ). A t t en t io n t o t h e fu n ct io n s em o t io n s ser ve h a s p ro vid ed a fo r cefu l a n d m u ch -n eed ed co u n t er p o in t t o t h e lo n g-st a n d in g view o f em o t io n s a s
R eq u est s fo r rep r in ts sh o u ld b e sen t to D r. Ja m es J. G ro ss, D ep ar tm ent o f P sych o logy, St an fo r d U n iver sity, St an fo r d , C A 943 05-2130; E -m a il: ja m es@ p sych .st an fo r d .ed u .
P r ep ar atio n o f t h is a r t icle wa s su p p o rt ed b y G r a n t M H 53859 fro m th e N atio n a l I n st itu te o f M ent al H ealth . T h e a u t h o r wo u ld like t o th a n k Br a m F r idh a n d ler, Ju d y M o sko witz, Jer r y P a r ro t t, two an o nym o u s r eviewer s, a n d m em b ers o f th e St a n fo r d P sych o p hysio logy L ab o r a -to r y fo r h elp fu l co m m en ts o n an ea r lier d r a ft o f th is a r ticle.
d ysfu n ct io n a l a n d d isr u p t ive (Yo u n g, 194 3 ). I n d eed , t h e t r en d t o wa r d fu n ct io n a l a p p ro a ch es h a s ga t h ered su ch m o m en t u m t h a t it n o w m u st b e a sk ed : A r e em o t io n sever t o b e r egu la t ed ?
I n t h e p a st t wo d eca d es, a n ew r esea r ch d o m a in h a s em er ged t h a t is co n cer n ed wit h ju st t h is q u est io n . T h e co r e co n st r u ct in t h is d o m a in Ð em o t io n r egu la tio n Ð ®r st ca m e in t o u se in t h e d evelo p m en t a l lit er a tu r e in t h e ea r ly 198 0 s (C a m p o s, B a r r et t , L a m b , G o ld sm it h , & St en b er g, 19 83; G a en sb a u er, 1982 ). Sin ce t h is t im e, em o t io n r egu la t o r y p ro cesses h ave en joyed in cr ea sin g a t t en t io n in b o t h d evelo p m en t a l (C a m p o s, C a m p o s, & Ba r r et t , 1989 ) a n d a d u lt (G ro ss, 199 8 b ) lit er a tu r es, a s r esea r ch er s fro m a va r iet y o f t r a d it io n s h ave exa m in ed h o w in d ivid u a ls in ¯u en ce wh ich em o t io n s t h ey h ave, wh en t h ey h ave t h em , a n d h o w t h ey exp er ien ce a n d exp r ess t h ese em o t io n s. I n t h is a r t icle, I ®r st d escr ib e t wo m a jo r p r ecu r so r s t o t h e stu d y o f em o t io n r egu la tio n : T h e p sych o a n a lyt ic t r a d it io n a n d t h e st r ess a n d co p in g t r a d it io n . I t h en u se a p ro cess m o d el o f em o t io n gen er a t io n t o p r ov id e a fra m ewo r k fo r stu d yin g em o t io n r egu la t io n , a n d co n sid er sever a l b o u n d a r y issu es. To illu st r a te co n t em -p o r a r y r esea r ch in t h is a r ea , I r eview -p ro m isin g wo r k o n b a sic -p ro cesses a n d in d ivid u a l d iffer en ces in a d u lt em o t io n r egu lat io n . I co n clu d e b y co n sid er in g sever a l t h eo r et ica l ch a llen ges a n d d irectio n s fo r fu t u r e r esea r ch .
HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS
R esea r ch sp eci®ca lly co n cer n ed wit h em o t io n r egu lat io n is a r ela t ively r ecen t in n o va t io n , b u t a n in t er est in h o w em o t ion s ca n a n d sh o u ld b e r egu la t ed is a n yt h in g b u t n ew (Aver ill, 198 2 ). P h ilo so p h er s fro m So cr a tes o n h ave g r a p p led w it h t h e ro le em o t io n sh o u ld p lay in ever yd a y a ffa irs, a n d t o t h is d ay o n e o f t h e co r e t h em es in West er n p h ilo so p hy is t h e co n t est b etween r ea so n a n d t h e p a ssio n s (So lo m o n , 197 6). I n t h e p a st cen t u r y, t h is lo n g-st a n d in g in t er est in em o t io n r egu la t io n h a s b een p layed o u t in t wo p r in cip a l a r en a s. To get h er, t h ese h ave set t h e sta ge fo r co n t em p o r a r y r esea r ch o n em o t io n r egu lat io n .
The Psychoanalytic Tradition
F r eu d u sed a n x iet y a s a ca t ch -a ll t er m fo r n ega t ive em o t io n s (E r d elyi, 199 3 ), a n d a d iscu ssio n o f h is views o n a n xiet y r egu lat io n id ea lly wo u ld b e co u ch ed in a gen er a l p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo r y o f a ffect. U n fo r t u n a t ely, a s o n e co m m en t a t o r p u t it , a n y a t t em p t a t fo r m u la tin g su ch a co m p r eh en sive p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo r y is ``ill-a d v ised , if n o t im p o ssib le’’ d u e t o t h e co m p lex a n d co n ¯ict in g d iscu ssio n s o f a ffect in F r eu d ’s wr it in gs (R a p a p o r t , 1 953 , p. 193 ). O f co u r se, t h is h a s n o t p r even t ed a n u m b er o f a t t em p t s a t d evisin g su ch a p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo r y o f a ffect (e.g. Ba sch , 1976 ; Br en n er, 198 2 ; K r yst a l, 19 77; Sch wa r t z, 19 87; Sp ezza n o , 199 3 ). G iven t h e cu r r en t la ck o f a gr eem en t , I fo cu s o n a n xiet y.
I n it ia lly, F r eu d b elieved t h a t a n x iet y r esu lt ed wh en lib id in a l im p u lses were d en ied exp r essio n (F r eu d , 1 900 /1 950 ; 1 915 /1976) . H e saw a n xiet y a s ep ip h en o m en a l, lik e st ea m esca p in g fro m a st u ck t u r b in e. W it h t h e d evel-o p m en t evel-o f t h e st r u ct u r a l m evel-o d el evel-o f p er sevel-o n a lit y, F r eu d d evelevel-o p ed a ver y d iffer en t co n cep t io n o f a n x iet y (F r eu d , 19 26/19 59). F r eu d (19 33/196 4) a r gu ed t h a t t h e ego a lo n e ca n p r o d u ce a n d exp erien ce a n xiet y, a n d t h a t r ea list ic, n eu ro t ic, a n d m o r a l a n xiet y d er ived fro m t h e ego ’s r elat io n s wit h r ea lit y, t h e id , a n d t h e su p erego , r esp ect ively. R ea lit y -b a sed a n xiet y wa s t h o u gh t t o r esu lt wh en t h e ego wa s o ver wh elm ed b y sit u a t io n a l d em a n d s. I n t h is ca se, a n xiet y r egu la t io n t o o k t h e fo r m o f avo id in g su ch sit u a tio n s in t h e fu t u r e, even if t h is m ea n t sever e cu r t a ilm en t o f b eh avio u r, a s in a go r a p h o b ia . By co n t r a st , F r eu d h eld t h a t id - a n d su p erego -b a sed a n xiet y r esu lt ed wh en im p u lses p r essed fo r a ctio n a n d t h e ego a n t icip a t ed h o w it wo u ld feel if su ch im p u lses wer e exp r essed . I f t h e ego ’s im a gin a l r u n -t h r o u g h led -t o h igh levels o f a n xie-t y, su f®cien -t u n p lea su r e wa s g en er a -t ed t o su p p r ess t h e im p u lse (F r eu d , 1926 /195 9 ). I n t h is ca se, a n x iet y r egu la t io n t o o k t h e fo r m o f cu r t a ilin g im p u lses t h a t wer e ju d ged lik ely t o crea t e fu t u r e a n x iet y.
in p a r t t h ro u gh a ``co r r ect ive em o t io n a l exp er ien ce’’ (A lexa n d er, 1950 ) in wh ich d r ea d ed co n seq u en ces o f im p u lse exp r essio n fa il t o m a t er ia lise (B a sch , 197 6 ).
Co ntinuities and D iscontin uities. C o n t em p o r a r y em o t io n r egu la t io n r esea r ch r em a in s co n cer n ed wit h r ed u cin g n ega t ive em o t io n exp er ien ce t h ro u gh b eh avio u r a l o r m en t a l co n t r o l. T h e ®eld o f st u d y h a s b ro a d en ed , h o wever, t o in clu d e t h e wa ys in wh ich in d ivid u a ls in cr ea se a n d d ecr ea se t h e exp er ien ce a n d exp r essio n o f a r a n g e o f n ega t ive a n d p o sit ive em o -t io n s (P a r ro -t -t , 199 3 ). T h ere a lso is a g ro w in g awa r en ess o f -t h e d iffer en ces b etween co n scio u s a n d n o n co n scio u s em o t io n r egu la t o r y p ro cesses (M a yer & Sa lovey, 1995 ). E m o t io n r egu lat o r y styles still a r e seen a s cen t r a l t o p sych o p a t h o lo gy (C icch et t i, A cker m a n , & I za r d , 1995 ; G ro ss & M u n o z, 19 95), b u t t h er e n o w is g r ea t er in t er est in d irectly a ssessin g t h e fu ll r a n ge o f n o r m a l fu n ct ion in g a s well (e.g. C a t a n za ro , 19 96). P er h a p s t h e m o st str ik ing d isco n t inu it y, h o wever, is co n t em p o r a r y r esea r ch er s’ r elia n ce o n co r r elat io n a l a n d exp er im en t a l m et h o d s r a t h er t h a n clin ica l r ep o r t s.
The Stress and Coping Tradition
T h e seco n d im p o r t a n t p r ecu r so r t o co n t em p o r a r y em o t io n r egu la t io n r esea r ch is t h e str ess a n d co p in g t r a d it io n . T h is t r a d it io n o r igin a t ed in t h e wo r k o f C a n n o n (19 14), a lt h o u gh it wa s Selye wh o p o p u la r ised t h e n o t io n t h a t o r ga n ism s p ro d u ce sim ila r ``st r ess’’ r esp o n ses t o d iver se ch a l-len ges (Selye, 19 56, 197 4). T h is view d r a ws u p o n a n a n a lo gy t o p hysica l lo a d s t h a t exer t a fo r ce o n n a tu r a l o r m a n -m a d e st r u ct u r es, r esu lt in g in a st r a in , o r d efo r m a t io n o f t h e st r u ct u r e d u e t o t h e st r ess (H in k le, 197 4 ). I m p o r t in g t h ese n o t io n s t o t h e b io log ica l r ea lm , Selye a r gu ed t h a t st r esso r s im p in ge u p o n t h e o r ga n ism , wh ich r esp o n d s b y p ro d u cin g a st er eo t yp ed st r ess r esp o n se, wh o se p r o ®le va r ies a cco r d in g t o wh eth er t h e st r esso r is o f sh o r t d u r a tio n (a la r m ), m o d er a t e d u r a t io n (resist a n ce), o r lo n g d u r a t io n (exh a u st io n ).
(b ) h o w t h e o r ga n ism viewed it s o wn ca p a cit ies t o r esp o n d (seco n d a r y a p p r a isa l); a n d (c) h o w t h e o r ga n ism a t t em p t ed t o m a n a ge t h e t ro u b led o r ga n ism -env iro n m en t r ela t io n t h a t o cca sio n ed t h e st r ess (co p in g). St r ess wa s d e®n ed a s ``a r ela t io n sh ip b et ween t h e p er so n a n d t h e env iro n m en t t h a t is a p p r a ised b y t h e p er so n a s r eleva n t t o h is o r h er well-b ein g a n d in wh ich t h e p er so n ’s r eso u r ces a r e t a xed o r exceed ed ’’, a n d co p in g wa s d e®n ed a s ``co gn it ive a n d b eh avio r a l effo r t s t o m a n a ge (m a st er, r ed u ce, o r t o ler a t e) a t ro u b led p er so n -en viro n m en t r elat io n sh ip ’’ (F o lk m a n & L a za r u s, 198 5, p. 152 ).
I n it ia lly, co m m o n a lt ies were em p h a sised a cro ss sit u a t io n s r a n g in g fro m t h e o r d in a r y, su ch a s t a k in g a n exa m (M ech a n ic, 1962 ) t o t h e ext r a o r -d in a r y, su ch a s b ein g t r a p p e-d in a co a l m in e (L u ca s, 1 969 ). W it h t im e, r esea r ch er s b ega n t o d ist in gu ish a m o n g st r esso r s. L a za r u s (1966 ) d e®n ed
har m a s a fo r m o f st r ess a sso cia t ed w it h d a m a ge t h a t h a s b een d o n e,
threat a s a fo r m o f st r ess a sso cia t ed wit h fu t u r e h a r m , a n d challen ge a s a fo r m o f st r ess a sso cia ted wit h p o sit ive r esp o n d in g. L ikew ise, Selye (197 4) d ist in gu ish ed b etween eustressÐ a fo r m o f st r ess a sso cia t io n wit h go o d feelin gs, a n d distressÐ a fo r m o f str ess a sso cia t ed wit h b a d feelin g s. D ist in ct io n s a lso wer e m a d e a m o n g co p in g r esp o n ses, su ch a s L a za r u s a n d co llea gu es’ d ist in ctio n b et ween problem -focused coping, wh ich wa s a im ed a t ®xin g t h e p ro b lem , a n d em otion-focused copin g, wh ich wa s a im ed a t lessen in g n ega t ive em o t io n exp er ien ce. I t wa s t h is la st co n -st r u ct , in p a r t icu la r, t h a t la id t h e gro u n d wo r k fo r t h e -st u d y o f em o t io n r egu la tio n .
fro m em o t io n r egu la tio n in t h a t t h e u n it o f a n a lysis is t yp ica lly lo n ger Ð ext en d ed p er io d s o f h o u r s, d a ys, o r m o n t h s r a t h er t h a n seco n d s o r m inu t es. T h u s, fo r exa m p le, o n e m igh t sp ea k o f co p in g wit h a d ju st m en t t o fr esh m a n yea r o f co llege, o r co p in g wit h t h e lo ss o f o n e’s sp o u se. H o wever, co p in g d o es n o t en t irely su b su m e em o t io n r egu la t io n : E m o t io n r egu la t io n in clu d es p ro cesses n o t t yp ica lly co n sid er ed in t h e co p in g lit er a t u r e, su ch a s r egu la t in g exp r essive o r p hysio logica l a sp ect s o f em o -t io n , o r in ¯u en cin g p o si-t ively va len ced em o -t io n s.
CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS
W it h p sych o a n a lyt ic a n d st r ess a n d co p in g t r a d it io n s a s a b a ck d ro p , em o t io n r egu la t io n r esea r ch h a s em erged a s a r ela t ively d ist in ct d o m a in o ver t h e p a st t wo d eca d es (G ro ss, 1 998 b ). P a r a m o u n t co n cer n s in clu d e d e®n in g em o t io n a n d em o t io n r egu la t io n , a n d d elin ea t in g in d ivid u a ls’ em o t io n r egu la t o r y go a ls a n d str a tegies.
De®ning Emotion
De®ning Emotion Regulation
T h e p h r a se ``em o t io n r egu lat io n ’’ is a m b igu o u s, a s it m igh t refer eq u a lly well t o h o w em o t io n s r egu la t e so m et h in g elseÐ su ch a s t h o u g h t s o r b eh a-vio u r Ð o r t o h o w em o t io n s a r e t h em selves r egu la t ed (D o d ge & G a r b er, 199 1 ). H o wever, if a p r im a r y fu n ct io n o f em o t io n is t o co -o r d in a t e d iver se r esp o n se syst em s (C a m p o s et a l., 19 83), t h e ®r st sen se o f em o t io n r egu la-t io n is la r gely r ed u n d a n la-t wila-t h em o la-t io n . F o r la-t h is r ea so n , I b elieve la-t h a la-t la-t h e seco n d u sa ge is p r efer a b le, in wh ich em o t io n r egu la t io n r efer s t o t h e h et ero g en eo u s set o f p ro cesses b y wh ich em o t io n s a r e t h em selves r egu -la t ed . B eca u se vir t u a lly a ll g o a l-d irect ed b eh avio u r ca n b e co n st r u ed a s m a xim isin g p lea su r e o r m in im isin g p a in Ð a n d t h u s a ffect r egu lat o r y in so m e b ro a d sen seÐ it is im p o r t a n t t o p r even t o ver -in clu sivit y b y n a r ro w-in g t h e fo cu s t o p r o cesses wh o se p ro x im a l fu n ctio n is t o r egu la t e em o t io n . A seco n d im p o r t a n t d ist in ct io n is su ggested b y r esea r ch er s’ u se o f em o t io n r egu la t io n t o r efer b o t h t o h o w in d ivid u a ls in ¯u en ce t h eir o w n em o t io n s a n d t o h o w t h ey in ¯u en ce o t h er p eo p le’s em o t io n s. T h is p r a ct ice lea d s t o d iscu ssio n s in wh ich st i¯in g o n e’s o wn t ea r s a n d t ellin g so m eo n e else t o st o p a ct in g lik e a cr yb ab y a r e b o t h co n sid er ed in sta n ces o f em o t ion r egu la tio n . T h is u sa ge is p a r t icu la r ly co m m o n in t h e d evelo p m en t a l lit er a -t u r e (e.g. M a s-ter s, 19 91; T h o m p so n , 199 4 ), b u -t i-t is a lso evid en -t in -t h e a d u lt lit era t u r e (G ro ss & L even so n , 1 993 ; Sa lovey, H see, & M a yer, 199 3 ). I n o w b elieve t h is d o u b le u sa ge is u n fo r t u n a t e, a s it m ixes t wo p o t en t ia lly q u it e d iffer en t set s o f m o t ives, go a ls, a n d st r a t egies. Bo t h k in d s o f em o t ion r egu la tio n m u st b e exa m in ed , b u t in d o in g so , t h e t wo sh o u ld b e clea r ly d ist in gu ish ed . I n t h e fo llo win g, I fo cu s o n em o t io n r egu la t io n in t h e self, b y wh ich I m ea n t h e wa ys in d ivid u a ls in ¯u en ce wh ich em o t io n s t h ey h ave, wh en t h ey h ave t h em , a n d h o w t h ey exp er ien ce a n d exp r ess t h ese em o t io n s. I n co llo q u ia l u sa ge, em o t io n is o ft en u sed in t erch a n geab ly wit h t h e su b -ject ive exp er ien ce o f em o t io n , a n d em o t io n r egu lat io n t h u s m igh t b e t h o u gh t t o n ecessa r ily invo lve ch a n ges in su b jective exp er ien ce. H o wever, t h er e is gen er a l co n sen su s a m o n g em o t io n r esea r ch er s t h a t em o t io n s a r e m u lt ico m p o n en t ia lÐ sp a n n in g exp er ien t ia l, b eh avio u r a l, a n d p hysio lo gica l d o m a in s. E m o t io n r egu la t io n t h u s invo lves ch a n ges in o n e o r m o r e o f t h ese r esp o n ses syst em s a n d n eed n o t (b u t cer t a in ly ca n ) invo lve a t t em p t s t o ch a n g e t h e su b jective exp er ien ce o f em o t io n .
p r esen t (C o le, 1 986), ligh t in g a ciga r ett e wh en a n x io u s (Br a n d o n , 199 4 ), o r even cr a ck in g a jo k e t o r elieve t en sio n (F r ed r ick so n & L even so n , 199 8 ). P r evio u s d iscu ssio n s h ave favo u r ed a ca tego r ica l d ist in ct io n b et ween co n -scio u s a n d u n co n -scio u s p ro cesses, b u t it p ro b a b ly is m o r e u sefu l t o t h in k o f a co n t inu u m o f p ro cesses t h a t va r y in t h e d egr ee t o wh ich t h ey a r e co n t ro lled , effo r t fu l, a n d co n scio u s ver su s a u t o m a t ic, effo r t less, a n d u n co n scio u s. C la r it y ab o u t t h e n a t u r e o f p ro cesses u n d er invest iga t io n is essen t ia l b eca u se t h er e m a y b e im p o r t a n t d iffer en ces in t h e a n t eced en t s a n d co n seq u en ces o f em o t io n r egu lat o r y p r o cesses ch a r a ct er ised b y d iffer in g levels o f co n scio u sn ess (Wegn er & Ba r gh , 19 98).
Emotion Regulatory Goals
A n evo lu t io n a r y p er sp ect ive h o ld s t h a t em o t io n s en co d e sit u a t io n -resp o n se d ep en d en cies t h a t h ave p ro ven va lu ab le o ver t h e sweep o f m illen n ia (To o b y & C o sm id es, 19 90). T h is in n o wa y im p les, h o wever, t h a t em o t io n r esp o n se t en d en cies a r e a lway sÐ o r even u su a llyÐ a p p r o p r iat e t o t h e sit u a t io n s we n o w fa ce. P hysica l a n d so cia l en viro n m en t s h ave ch a n ged o u t o f a ll r eco g-n it io g-n fro m t h o se t h a t sh a p ed o u r em o t io g-n s, a g-n d t ech g-n o logica l a d va g-n ces h ave d r a m a tica lly m a gn i®ed t h e co n seq u en ces t h a t o u r em o t io n a l r esp o n ses m a y h ave fo r o u r selves a n d o t h er s. A n irr it a b le sw ip e t h a t o n ce sca r cely r a ised a welt , is n o w t r a n slat ed w it h t h e g r ea t est ea se in t o a fa t a l ca r a ccid en t o r gu n -r ela t ed h o m icid e.
H o wever r ea l t h e m a n y b en e®t s o f em o t io n , t h en , it is im p o r t a n t n o t t o o ver st a te t h e a d va n t a ges o f a ct in g in a cco r d w it h u n t r a m m eled em o t io n a l im p u lses (P a r r o t t , 199 5). I n d eed , wh en o n e su r veys t h e ca u ses o f h u m a n d ysfu n ct io n a n d su ffer in g, o n e is str u ck b y t h e d egr ee t o wh ich em o t io n s lea d u s t o d o t h in gs t h a t ca u se su ffer in g t o o u r selves a n d t h o se a ro u n d u s, wh et h er t h ro u gh im p u lsive a gg r essive a ct io n , h a st y b u sin ess d ecisio n s, o r d eceit fu l sexu a l lia iso n s. P a r t icu la r ly wh en em o t io n s a r e viewed a s a r isin g a t m o m en t s o f ch a llen ge o r o p p o r t u n it y, t h e im p o r t a n ce o f p ro p er r egu la -t io n is u n m is-t a k a b le.
We k n o w r elat ively lit t le ab o u t in d ivid u a ls’ em o t io n r egu la t o r y go a ls, b u t it seem s in cr ea sin gly clea r t h a t em o t io n r egu la t io n in vo lves b o t h d ecr ea sin g a n d in crea sin g n ega t ive a n d p o sit ive em o t io n s (L a n gst o n , 19 94; M a ster s, 199 1; P a r r o t t , 1 993). E m o t io n r egu la t io n t h a t invo lves
wh en : (a ) em o t io n r esp o n se t en d en cies a r e la ck in g b eca u se o n e’s m in d is elsewh er e, b u t o n e wish es t o m u st er a n a p p ro p r ia t ely en t h u sia st ic r esp o n se t o a n o t h er ’s go o d n ew s; o r (b ) o n e d esires t o r ep la ce o n e em o t io n wit h a n o t h er, su ch a s wh en o n e is feelin g d o w n , a n d o n e wa n t s t o su m m o n a m o r e p o sit ive em o t io n a l st a te b efo r e ca llin g o n frien d s. O n e r esea r ch p r io r it y is t o d evelo p a b et t er u n d er st a n d in g o f wh a t in d ivid u a ls a r e t r yin g t o a cco m p lish wh en t h ey r egu la t e t h eir em o t io n s, k eep in g in m in d t h a t em o t io n r egu lat o r y go a ls m a y b e n o n co n scio u s, a n d t h a t t h ey a r e lik ely t o b e h igh ly co n t ext -sen sit iveÐ su ch a s m a t ch in g t h e em o t io n a l sta t e o f a n a n t icip a t ed in t er a ct io n p a r t n er (E r b er, Wegn er, & T h er r ia u lt , 1 996).
Emotion Regulatory Processes
W h a t in d ivid u a ls wa n t t o a ch ieve a s t h ey in ¯u en ce t h eir em o t io n sÐ t h eir em o t io n r egu la t o r y go a lsÐ m u st b e d ist in gu ish ed fro m t h e p ro cesses t h ey in vo k e in o r d er t o a ch ieve t h ese go a ls. O n e way t o o r ga n ise t h ese em o t io n r egu la to r y p ro cesses is b y d r awin g o n a co n sen su a l p r o cess m o d el o f em o t io n gen er a t io n . T h is m o d el is a d ist illa t io n o f m a jo r p o in t s o f co n -ver gen ce a m o n g em o t io n r esea r ch er s wh o em p h a sise b io lo gica l b a ses o f em o t io n (m a jo r co n t r ibu t o r s t o t h is t r a d it io n in clu d e: A r n o ld , 1 960 ; Bu ck , 198 5 ; E k m a n , 197 2 ; F r ijd a , 19 86; I za r d , 19 77; L a za r u s, 199 1; P lu t ch ik , 198 0 ; Sch er er, 19 84; To m k in s, 196 2 ). A cco r d in g t o t h is m o d el, em o t io n b egin s wit h a n eva lu a t io n o f ext er n a l o r in t er n a l em o t io n cu es. C er t a in eva lu a t io n s t r igger a co -o r d in a t ed set o f b eh avio u r a l, exp er ien t ia l, a n d p hy sio log ica l em o t io n r esp o n se t en d en cies. T h ese r esp o n se t en d en cies m ay b e m o d u la t ed , a n d it is t h is m o d u la tio n t h a t gives ®n a l sh a p e t o m a n ifest em o t io n a l r esp o n ses.
r u m in a tio n , wh ich fo cu ses a tt en t io n o n t h e sit u a t io n a n d it s em o t io n a l im p lica t io n s (N o len -H o ek sem a , 1993 ). E ven a fter a sit u a t io n h a s b een selected , m o d i®ed , a n d select ively a t t en d ed t o , it still is p o ssible t o a lt er it s em o t io n a l im p a ct . Cogn itive cha nge r efer s t o eva lu a t in g t h e sit u a t io n o n e is in so a s t o a lt er it s em o t io n a l sig n i®ca n ce, eit h er b y ch a n g in g h o w o n e t h in k s a b o u t t h e sit u a t io n o r a b o u t o n e’s ca p a cit y t o m a n a ge t h e d em a n d s it p o ses. Respon se m odulat ion r efer s t o in ¯u en cin g em o t io n r esp o n se t en d en cies o n ce t h ey a r ise. E ver yd a y exp er ien ce is r ep let e wit h effo r t s t o m a n ip u la t e em o t io n -exp r essive b eh avio u r, su ch a s h id in g a n ger a t a n o ffen sive r em a r k , a s well a s p hysio lo gica l r esp o n d in g , su ch a s slowin g o n e’s b r ea t h in g r a t e. I t is less cer t a in wh eth er em o t io n exp erien ce ca n b e m o d i®ed d irect ly, a lt h o u gh co gn it ive, b eh avio u r a l, a n d p h a r m a co logic m ea n s a ll m a y b e u sed t o m o d ify em o t io n exp er ien ce in d irect ly.
CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH
A g ro win g sen se o f sh a r ed p u r p o se in t h e d o m a in o f em o t io n r egu la t io n h a s led t o gr ea ter co n t a ct b et ween p r evio u sly d isp a r a t e r esea r ch p ro gr a m s. I n t h e fo llo win g sect io n s, I illu st r a t e cu r r en t em o t io n r egu la t ion r esea r ch b y d escr ib in g p ro m isin g r esea r ch o n b a sic p ro cesses a n d in d ivid u a l d iffer -en ces in a d u lt em o t io n r egu la t io n (fo r a r eview o f t h e lit er a t u r e o n em o t io n r egu la t io n in ch ild ren , see T h o m p so n , 1 990 ). R e¯ect in g t h e b ia s in co n -t em p o r a r y r esea r ch , m y fo cu s is o n -t h e r egu la -t io n o f n ega -t ive em o -t io n s.
Basic Processes
A va r iet y o f em o t io n r egu la t o r y p r o cesses h ave a t t r a ct ed a tt en t io n , in clu d -in g: R eca ll-in g m o o d --in co n gr u en t m em o r ies (P a r ro t t & Sa b -in i, 19 90; Sm it h & P et t y, 199 5), h elp in g o t h er s (Sch a ller & C ia ld in i, 199 0 ), exer cisin g (T h a yer, N ewm a n & M cC la in , 19 94), seek in g so cia l su p p o r t (R ip p er e, 19 77), u sin g d r u gs (M o r r is & R eilley, 19 87), a n d m a k in g so cia l co m p a r -iso n s (Ta ylo r & L o b el, 198 9 ). I n t h e fo llo win g , I fo cu s o n t wo b a sic p ro cessesÐ r ea p p r a isa l a n d su p p r essio n Ð t h a t r ep r esen t t wo m a jo r p o in t s in t h e em o t io n gen er a t ive p r o cess a t wh ich em o t io n s ca n b e r egu la t ed (G ro ss, 1 998 b ).
p lays a k ey ro le in t h eo r ies o f em o t io n (e.g . L a za r u s, 199 1 ) a n d st r ess r ed u ct io n (e.g. K a t z & E p st ein , 199 1 ; M eich en b a u m , 198 5 ). U n fo r t u -n a t ely, d esp it e it s wid e cu r r e-n cy, eve-n t h e hyp o t h esis t h a t co g-n it ive str a te-gies m a y b e u sed t o d ecrea se n ega t ive em o t io n Ð wh ich is wh a t we k n o w m o st a b o u t Ð h a s a su r p r isin gly m o d est em p ir ica l fo u n d a t io n . L ea d in g su b ject s t o r ea p p r a ise n ega t ive em o t io n -elicit in g ®lm s h a s b een sh o w n t o d ecr ea se n ega t ive em o t io n exp er ien ce (C a n t o r & W ilso n , 198 4; D a n d o y & G o ld st ein , 199 0 ; G ro ss, 199 8a ; L a za r u s & A lfer t , 1 964). H o wever, co n -co m it a n t d ecr ea ses in p hysio logica l r esp o n d in g a r e o ft en n o t o b ser ved (e.g . G ro ss, 199 8 a ; St ep t o e & Vo g ele, 1 986 ). W hy m igh t t h is b e? O n e p o ssib ilit y is t h a t co gn it ive a p p r a isa ls p lay a lim it ed ro le in t h e g en er a t io n o f p hysio -lo gica l r esp o n se t en d en cies in t h e co n t ext o f gr a p h ic su r ger y ®lm s (L eD o u x , 19 89). I f so, r ea p p r a isa l m igh t b e exp ect ed t o b e m o r e effect ive in co m p lex so cia l sit u a t io n s. I n d eed , St em m ler (1997 ) h a s sh o wn t h a t r ea p p r a isa l in st r u ct io n s led t o d ecr ea sed p hysio lo gica l r esp o n d in g fo r su b ject s wh o a n exp er im en t er ver b a lly h a r a ssed . O n e im p o r t a n t d irect io n fo r fu t u r e r esea r ch is t o u se r ea p p r a isa l a s a p ro b e t o cla r ify t h e n a t u r e o f co gn it ive p r o cessin g in em o t io n gen er a t io n a n d r egu la tio n .
F u t u re r esea r ch sh o u ld exp lo r e t h e ext en t t o wh ich t h e in h ib it io n o f exp r essive b eh avio u r h a s co n sist en t effect s a cro ss em o t io n s, a n d t est wh et h er t h ese effect s a r e sim ila r t o t h o se o f a t t em p t in g t o in h ib it o t h er a sp ect s o f t h e em o t io n a l r esp o n se, su ch a s em o t io n a l exp er ien ce.
Individual Differences
E m o t io n r egu la t io n a lways t a k es p la ce in t h e co n t ext o f a p a r ticu la r in d ivid u a l. Beca u se in d ivid u a ls d iffer b o t h in th e em o t io n s t h ey exp er i-en ce a n d in t h e way t h ey r egu lat e t h ese em o t io n s, a n y sep a r a t io n b et wei-en t h e st u d y o f b a sic em o t io n r egu lat o r y p r o cesses a n d ind ivid u a l d iffer en ces in su ch p ro cesses m u st b e r ega r d ed a s a t em p o r a r y co n ven ien ce r a t h er t h a n a lo n g-ter m st r a t egy (see G ro ss, in p r ess). H o wever, o n e m a jo r im p ed im en t t o t a k in g a p r o cess-o r ien t ed a p p ro a ch t o p er so n a lit y is t h a t in d ivid u a l d iffer en ces in em o t io n r egu lat io n h ave b een stu d ied u n d er a d isco n cer t in gly la rge n u m b er o f r u b r ics. C o n st r u ct s m o st clo sely r ela t ed t o em o t io n r egu lat io n in clu d e: E m o t io n a l co n tr o l (Ro ger & N a ja r ia n , 1989) , n ega t ive m o o d r egu lat ion (C a ta n za ro , 1996) , r ep r essio n (Wein b erger, 1990) , a n d r u m in a t io n /d ist r a ctio n (N o len H o ek sem a , 1993) . R elat ed co n -str u ct s in clu d e: m o n ito r in g/b lu n t in g (M iller, 1987) , sen sat io n seek in g (Z u ck er m a n , 1979) , co n str u ctive t h in k in g (E p stein & M eier, 1989), im p u l-sivit y (E ysen ck & E y sen ck , 1969) , b eh avio u r a l inh ib it io n (K a g a n , R ezn ick , & G ibb o n s, 1989) , co n str a in t (Tellegen , 1985) , a m b iva len ce o ver em o -t io n a l exp r essivi-t y (K in g & E m m o n s, 1990) , d ela y o f gr a -t i®ca -t ion (M is-ch el, 19 74), a lexit hym ia (Ta ylo r, Ba gb y, & P a r k er, 1 997), co p in g style (C a r ver, Sch eier, & Wein t r a u b , 19 89), ego co n tr o l (Blo ck & Blo ck , 1980) , a n d em o t io n a l in t elligen ce (Sa lo vey & M ayer, 1990) . R a t h er t h a n a t t em p t in g a co m p r eh en sive r eview, I illu str a t e r ecen t r esea r ch o n ind ivi-d u a l ivi-d iffer en ces in em o t io n r egu lat io n b y fo cu sin g o n t wo well-st u ivi-d ieivi-d in d ivid u a l d iffer en cesÐ r u m in a tion a n d r ep r essio n Ð t h a t were selected t o r ep r esen t co n scio u s a n d n o n co n scio u s em o t io n r egu lat o r y p ro cesses t h a t va r y d ia m et r ica lly in t h eir u se o f a t t en t io n .
a r e a sso cia t ed wit h gr ea t er lik elih o o d o f d evelo p in g d ep r essive sym p t o m s (Ju st & A llo y, 199 7; N o len -H o ek sem a , P a r k er, & L a r so n , 1 994 ), m o r e sever e d ep ressive sym p t o m s (Ju st & A llo y, 199 7; N o len -H o ek sem a & M o r ro w, 199 1; N o len -H o ek sem a , M o r ro w, & F r ed r ick so n , 199 3), a n d lo n ger d ep r essive ep iso d es (N o len -H o ek sem a , 1993 ; N o len -H o ek sem a , M cBr id e, & L a r so n , 1 997 ). I n t h e co n t ext o f a n a n a lysis o f sex d iffer en ces in d ep r essio n , N o len -H o ek sem a (19 93, p. 30 8) h a s a r gu ed t h a t ``it is m o r e ef®cien t a n d p o t en t ia lly u sefu l t o fo cu s o n p eo p le’s sty les o f r esp o n d in g t o t h e sp eci®c m o o d st a t es t h a n t o u t ilize m o r e glo b a l co n st r u ct s’’. H o wever, fro m a b ro a d er em o t io n r egu la t o r y p er sp ect ive, o n e m igh t exp ect t h a t r u m in a t io n in t h e co n t ext o f o t h er em o t io n a l st a t es su ch a s a n ger, g u ilt , o r a n x iet y wo u ld h ave co m p a r a b le co n seq u en ces in t er m s o f p ro d u cin g m o r e in t en se a n d lo n g er-la st in g ep iso d es o f ea ch o f t h ese em o t io n s. E xp lo r in g in d ivid u a l d iffer en ces in r u m in a t io n wit h o t h er em o t io n a l sta t es is a clea r r esea r ch p r io r it y in t h is a r ea .
19 80; N ewt o n & C o n t r a d a , 199 2 ; Wein b er ger, 199 0 ). F u t u r e r esea r ch w ill b e n eed ed t o cla r ify r ep r esso r s’ t yp ica l p a t t er n s o f em o t io n a l exp er ien ce a n d exp r essio n , a n d t o a ssess m o r e p r ecisely wh er e in t h e em o t io n -gen era t ive p ro cess r ep r esso r s r egu la t e em o t io n .
THEORETICAL CHALLENGES AND
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
T h is selective r eview o f r ecen t r esea r ch d em o n st r a tes t h e in t egr a t ive p o wer o f t h e co n st r u ct o f em o t io n r egu la t io n . A p p a r en t ly d isp a r a t e co n cer n s a r e b r o u g h t u n d er o n e r o o f, h elp in g t o sh a r p en q u est io n s a b o u t p o in t s o f co n ver gen ce a n d d ivergen ce a m o n g p ro cesses. H o wever, t h e n o t io n o f em o t io n r egu la t io n a lso p o ses a n u m b er o f ser io u s t h eo r e-t ica l ch a llen ges. I n e-t h e fo llo w in g sece-t io n s, I d iscu ss ®ve o f e-t h e m o se-t p r essin g o f t h ese ch a llen ges, a n d su ggest a n u m b er o f d irect io n s fo r fu t u r e r esea r ch .
What Is Regulated in Emotion Regulation?
T h o m p so n (19 94) r a ises t h e im p o r t a n t q u estio n a s t o wh a t is r egu la t ed in em o t io n r egu la tio n . I h ave su ggest ed t h a t em o t io n r egu la t io n invo lves ch a n g es in b eh avio u r a l, exp er ien t ia l, a n d /o r p hysio lo gica l r esp o n ses. Beca u se em o t io n s u n fo ld o ver t im e, t h ese ch a n ges in vo lve a lt er a t io n s in ``em o t io n d yn a m ics’’ (T h o m p so n , 199 0), o r t h e la t en cy, r ise t im e, m a gn i-t u d e, d u r a i-t io n , a n d o ffsei-t o f r esp o n ses in o n e o r m o r e d o m a in s. E m o i-t io n r egu la t io n a lso m ay invo lve ch a n ges in h o w r esp o n se co m p o n en t s a r e in t er r ela ted a s t h e em o t io n u n fo ld s o ver t im e, su ch a s wh en la r ge in cr ea ses in p hysio logica l r esp o n d in g o ccu r in t h e ab sen ce o f o ver t b eh avio u r. H o wever, em o t io n r esp o n se co m p o n en t s a r e n o t o r io u sly lo o sely in t er k n it (L a n g, R ice, & St er n b a ch , 197 2), a n d in fer en ces ab o u t em o t io n r egu la t io n b a sed o n d iscrep a n cies a cro ss r esp o n se ch a n n els m u st b e m a d e w it h ca u t io n . Sp ecifyin g p r ecisely wh a t is r egu la ted Ð a n d wh et h er em o t io n r egu lat io n h a s t a k en p la ce a t a llÐ is o n e o f t h e m o st ser io u s ch a llen g es t h is a r ea fa ces. To m eet t h is ch a llen ge, we n eed a m o r e co m p let e u n d er sta n d in g o f t h e r elat io n s a m o n g em o t io n resp o n se co m -p o n en t s b o t h wh en in d ivid u a ls r egu la t e a n d wh en t h ey d o n o t r egu la t e t h eir em o t io n s.
How Can One Tell When Emotion Is Regulated?
o n e fa sh io n , b u t in st ea d p r o ceed s in a n o t h er. I n fer en ces su ch a s t h ese a r e fr a u gh t wit h d a n ger. A n exp r essio n less fa ce in so m eo n e wh o t y p ica lly gesticu lat es wild ly a t t h e slig h t est excu se m a y b e r ich wit h m ea n in g, b u t t h a t sa m e la ck o f exp r essio n in so m eo n e wh o r a r ely sh o w s a n y sign o f em o t io n is m u ch less str o n g ly su ggest ive o f em o t io n r egu la tio n . A lso , a s a tt em p t s a t elicit in g em o t io n in t h e lab o r a t o r y h ave a m p ly d em o n str a t ed , em o t io n a l r esp o n ses va r y a s a fu n ct io n o f su b t le en viro n m en t a l cu es (G ro ss & L even so n , 19 95). T h is m ea n s t h a t em o t io n r egu la t io n ca n n o t b e in fer r ed u n less t h e sit u a t io n a s p erceived b y t h e in d ivid u a l sh o u ld h ave elicit ed a d iffer en t em o t io n r esp o n se p r o ®le t h a n t h e o n e t h a t wa s sh o wn . E m o t io n r egu la tio n t h u s r eq u ires a fo r m id a b le level o f cer t a in t y a b o u t em o t io n in it s u n r egu lat ed st a t e. W it h o u t t h is, d iscu ssio n s o f em o t io n r egu la t io n b eco m e p o std ict io n s t h a t ca n exp la in a n y p a t t er n o f ®n d in gs (K a p p a s, 199 6). T h is is p a r t icu la r ly t r u e wh en em o t io n r egu lat io n is invo k ed t o exp la in a la ck o f em o t io n wh ere em o t io n m igh t b e exp ected , in wh ich ca se t wo h idd en p ro cessesÐ em o t io n a n d em o t io n r egu la t io n Ð a r e invo k ed t o exp la in t o a n o n r esp o n se (F r ijd a , 198 6 ). L it t le is k n o wn ab o u t t h e co m p lexit ies o f n o r m a t ive em o t io n a l r esp o n d in g, let a lo n e t h e effect s o f d isp o sit io n a l va r iab les, su ch a s n eu ro t icism (G ro ss, Su t t o n , & K etela a r, 1 998 ), a n d gro u p d iffer en ces, su ch a s sex (K r in g & G o r d o n , 199 8 ). T h is m ea n s t h a t a t b est , p r o b a b ilist ic sta t em en t s ca n b e m a d e a b o u t em o t io n r egu lat io n in a n y given ca se. To sp ecify wh en Ð a n d wh et h er Ð em o t io n r egu lat io n h a s o ccu r r ed , m u ch m o r e w ill n eed t o b e lea r n ed ab o u t b a sic em o t io n a l r esp o n ses.
Is Emotion Ever
Not
Regulated?
What Level of Analysis Should Be Used?
So m e r esea r ch er s h ave a ssessed t h e co n seq u en ces o f o n e o r t wo sp eci®c fo r m s o f em o t io n r egu la t io n , in o n e em o t io n a l co n t ext , u sin g a fo cu sed set o f r esp o n se m ea su r es (e.g. N o len -H o ek sem a , 1993 ). O t h er s h ave exa m in ed em o t io n r egu la tio n in fa r m o r e g en er a l t er m s u sin g a b ro a d a r r a y o f r esp o n se m ea su r es (E isen b erg et a l., 1995) . I n m y o w n m u lt im eth o d wo r k o n em o t io n su p p r essio n (G ro ss, 199 8a ; G ro ss & L even so n , 19 93, 19 97), I h ave b een m o r e im p r essed wit h sim ila r it ies t h a n d iffer en ces in t h e effect s o f em o t io n su p p r essio n a cro ss em o t io n s, b u t o n e im p o r t a n t d iffer en ce h a s em er ged , in t h a t su p p r essin g p o sit ive em o t io n -exp r essive b eh avio u r su ch a s a m u sem en t , d ecr ea ses a m u sem en t exp er ien ce, wh erea s su p p r essin g n ega -t ive em o -t io n -exp r essive b eh avio u r d o es n o -t h ave co m p a r ab le effec-t s. O n e im p o r t a n t d irect io n fo r fu t u r e r esea r ch is t o ch a r t t h e im m ed iat e a n d lo n ger -t er m co n seq u en ces o f d iffer en t fo r m s o f em o t io n r egu la t io n in t h e co n t ext o f d iffer en t em o t io n a l st a t es.
How Does Emotion Regulation Relate to Other
Forms of Impulse Regulation?
E m o t io n a l im p u lses a r e b y n o m ea n s t h e o n ly im p u lses wit h wh ich we m u st co n t en d . O n e p r essin g q u est io n is h o w em o tio n r egu lat io n r ela t es t o o t h er fo r m s o f r egu la tio n , su ch a s m o o d r egu la t io n (C a r ver & Sch eier, 1990; T h ayer, 1996) , t h o u gh t co n t ro l (Wegn er, 1994) , a n d still o t h er for m s o f im p u lse r egu lat io n (Ba u m eist er & H ea th er t o n , 1996 ; Blo ck & Blo ck , 1980) . I n it ia l evid en ce su ggest s m o d est co r r ela t io n s a m o n g m ea su r es o f im p u lse r egu lat io n in ch ild r en (K o p p , 1982 ; R eed , P ien , & R o t h b a r t , 1984 ) a n d a d u lts (K in g, E m m o n s, & Wo o d ley, 1992). G iven t h e em ergin g co n sen su s t h a t d iscr ete a n d d im en sio n a l levels o f a n a lysis a r e co m p a t ib le r a t h er th a n in co m p etit io n wit h o n e a n o t h er, m o d els o f em o t io n r egu la t io n a n d m o o d r egu la tion even tu a lly m a y t a k e t h eir p la ce in su p ero r d in a t e m o d els o f a ffect r egu lat io n . I t seem s r ea so n a b le, h o wever, t o m a in t a in d ist in ctio n s b etween p ro cesses t h a t r egu la te em o t io n , o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d t h o se t h a t r egu la t e t h o u gh t s (e.g. Wegn er & Ba r gh , 1998 ) o r well-lea r n t o p er a n t r esp o n ses (e.g. L o ga n , Sch a ch a r, & Ta n n o ck , 1997) o n t h e o t h er. I t is less o b vio u s wh et h er p ro cesses t h a t r eg-u late em o t io n a l im p eg-u lses sh o eg-u ld b e d ist ingeg-u ish ed fro m t h o se th a t r egeg-u la te im p u lses a sso cia t ed wit h h u n ger, th irst, a ggr essio n , a n d sexu a l a ro u sa l (Bu ck , 1985) . T h ese issu es seem cert a in t o a t tr a ct co n t inu ed in terest, a s r esea r ch ers fro m a va r iet y o f h o m e d o m a in s (e.g. weigh t loss, su b st a n ce ab u se, a ggr essio n , em o t io n r egu lat io n : see Ba u m eist er & H eat h er t o n , 1996 ) b egin t o fash io n stro n ger em p irica l lin k s a cro ss d iver se fo r m s o f self-r egu lat io n .
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