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Journal of Education for Business

ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20

Transformational Leadership: Practicing What We

Teach in the Management Classroom

James S. Pounder

To cite this article: James S. Pounder (2008) Transformational Leadership: Practicing What

We Teach in the Management Classroom, Journal of Education for Business, 84:1, 2-6, DOI: 10.3200/JOEB.84.1.2-6

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOEB.84.1.2-6

Published online: 07 Aug 2010.

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examined฀ the฀ nature฀ and฀ effects฀ of฀ transformational฀ leadership฀ in฀ a฀ classroom฀ context.฀ The฀ study฀ involved฀ a฀sample฀of฀instructors฀and฀undergradu-ate฀students฀in฀a฀Hong฀Kong฀university฀ business฀ school฀ and฀ used฀ a฀ version฀ of฀ the฀ Multifactor฀ Leadership฀ Question-naire฀ (MLQ฀ Form฀ 5x-Short;฀ Bass฀ &฀ Avolio,฀ 2000)฀ that฀ I฀ modified฀ for฀ a฀ classroom฀ situation.฀ The฀ initial฀ impe-tus฀ for฀ the฀ study฀ was฀ a฀ conviction฀ that฀ although฀ management฀ is฀ a฀ practical฀ discipline,฀ business฀ academics฀ rarely฀ seize฀ the฀ opportunity฀ to฀ practice฀ what฀ they฀are฀teaching฀in฀the฀university฀class-room.฀This฀ circumstance฀ is฀ despite฀ the฀ fact฀ that฀ the฀ university฀ classroom฀ may฀ be฀ perceived฀ as฀ a฀ quasi-organization฀ (e.g.,฀Cheng,฀1994;฀Luechauer฀&฀Shul-man,฀2002;฀Lyons,฀1995;฀Weaver฀&฀Qi,฀ 2005)฀ that฀ offers฀ scope฀ for฀ examining฀ the฀ impact฀ of฀ some฀ of฀ the฀ manage-ment฀ theories,฀ principles,฀ and฀ concepts฀ that฀appear฀to฀transfer฀readily฀from฀the฀ conventional฀organization฀context฀to฀the฀ university฀ classroom฀ setting.฀ One฀ such฀ concept฀ is฀ transformational฀ leadership,฀ with฀instructors฀replacing฀managers฀and฀ with฀students฀replacing฀subordinates.฀

Commonly,฀ the฀ effect฀ of฀ transforma-tional฀leadership฀on฀subordinates฀centers฀ on฀ three฀ leadership฀ outcomes:฀ (a)฀ the฀ ability฀ of฀ the฀ leader฀ to฀ generate฀ extra฀ effort฀ on฀ the฀ part฀ of฀ those฀ being฀ led,฀ (b)฀ subordinates’฀ perception฀ of฀ leader฀ effectiveness,฀ and฀ (c)฀ their฀ satisfaction฀

with฀ the฀ leader.฀ These฀ outcomes฀ are฀ components฀of฀the฀MLQ฀Form฀5x-Short฀ developed฀by฀Bass฀and฀Avolio฀(2000)฀for฀ leadership฀ studies.฀ Use฀ of฀ the฀ MLQ฀ in฀ leadership฀research฀has฀indicated฀that฀the฀ exercise฀ of฀ transformational฀ leadership฀ generally฀ has฀ a฀ profound฀ and฀ positive฀ effect฀ on฀ those฀ being฀ led฀ and฀ this฀ has฀ important฀implications฀for฀the฀education฀ of฀ students—particularly฀ in฀ the฀ area฀ of฀ extra฀ effort.฀ Thus,฀ a฀ number฀ of฀ stud-ies฀have฀suggested฀that฀transformational฀ leadership฀ has฀ a฀ marked฀ and฀ positive฀ influence฀ on฀ subordinates’฀ satisfaction,฀ performance,฀ and฀ effort฀ (e.g.,฀ Bass฀ &฀ Avolio,฀ 1990,฀ 2000;฀ Bycio,฀ Hackett,฀ &฀ Allen,฀1995;฀Kirkpatrick฀&฀Locke,฀1996;฀ Parry,฀ 2000).฀The฀ positive฀ effect฀ of฀ this฀ style฀of฀leadership฀on฀subordinates’฀level฀ of฀ effort฀ is฀ particularly฀ relevant฀ to฀ an฀ educational฀ context฀ given฀ strong฀ evi-dence฀linking฀academic฀achievement฀and฀ student฀effort฀at฀both฀school฀and฀higher฀ education฀ levels฀ in฀ general฀ (Carbonaro,฀ 2005;฀ Michaels฀ &฀ Miethe,฀ 1989)฀ and฀ in฀ university฀ business฀ education฀ in฀ par-ticular฀ (Eskew฀ &฀ Faley,฀ 1988;฀ Johnson,฀ Joyce,฀&฀Sen,฀2002;฀Naser฀&฀Peel,฀1998;฀ Williams฀&฀Clark,฀2002).฀

METHOD Setting

I฀ carried฀ out฀ this฀ study฀ in฀ the฀ busi-ness฀school฀of฀Lingnan฀University,฀one฀ of฀Hong฀Kong’s฀accredited฀universities.฀

Transformational฀Leadership:฀฀

Practicing฀What฀We฀Teach฀in฀฀

the฀Management฀Classroom฀

JAMES฀S.฀POUNDER ABU฀DHABI฀UNIVERSITY

ABU฀DHABI,฀UNITED฀ARAB฀EMIRATES

I

ABSTRACT. In฀a฀Hong฀Kong฀study,฀the฀ author฀examined฀the฀effect฀on฀undergradu-ate฀business฀students฀of฀university฀business฀ school฀instructors’฀exhibiting฀a฀transfor-mational฀leadership฀style฀in฀the฀classroom.฀ Transformational฀leadership฀is฀one฀of฀ the฀central฀concepts฀in฀management,฀and฀ research฀has฀indicated฀that฀a฀positive฀asso- ciation฀exists฀between฀this฀style฀of฀leader-ship฀and฀desirable฀leadership฀outcomes.฀ The฀author฀examined฀this฀relation฀in฀a฀uni-versity฀classroom฀context,฀and฀the฀results฀ indicated฀that฀transformational฀classroom฀ leadership฀was฀significantly฀and฀positively฀ associated฀with฀desirable฀classroom฀leader-ship฀outcomes฀such฀as฀extra฀effort.฀

Keywords:฀classroom฀leadership,฀student฀ effort,฀transformational฀leadership

Copyright฀©฀2008฀Heldref฀Publications

The฀study฀focused฀on฀the฀capstone฀stra-tegic฀management฀course฀in฀the฀school’s฀ major฀ undergraduate฀ offering,฀ which฀ is฀ a฀ bachelor฀ of฀ business฀ administra-tion฀ (BBA)฀ program.฀ In฀ the฀ context฀ of฀ practicing฀what฀we฀teach,฀leadership฀is฀ generally฀ considered฀ to฀ be฀ at฀ the฀ core฀ of฀strategic฀management฀(Hill฀&฀Jones,฀ 2007;฀Hitt,฀Ireland,฀&฀Hoskisson,฀2005;฀ Pearce฀&฀Robinson,฀2005).฀At฀the฀time฀ of฀ the฀ study,฀ the฀ BBA฀ program฀ had฀ a฀ total฀ cohort฀ of฀ 876฀ students฀ spread฀ over฀3฀years,฀and฀strategic฀management฀ was฀a฀required฀course฀for฀all฀final-year฀ students.฀ I฀ concentrated฀ the฀ study฀ on฀ one฀ course฀ to฀ ensure฀ that฀ results฀ were฀ not฀ obscured฀ because฀ of฀ differences฀ in฀ course฀ content,฀ because฀ studies฀ have฀ indicated฀that฀course฀content฀can฀influ-ence฀ student฀ evaluation฀ of฀ instructors฀ (Cashin,฀1990;฀Cranton฀&฀Smith,฀1986).฀ The฀Lingnan฀University฀Business฀School฀ was฀selected฀to฀facilitate฀the฀cooperation฀ needed฀ from฀ the฀ strategic฀ management฀ instructors฀ for฀ an฀ approach฀ to฀ evaluat-ing฀ their฀ teachevaluat-ing฀ from฀ a฀ leadership฀ perspective.฀At฀ the฀ time฀ of฀ the฀ study,฀ I฀ was฀ one฀ of฀ the฀ instructors฀ responsible฀ for฀delivering฀the฀strategic฀management฀ course฀ and฀ was฀ able฀ to฀ draw฀ upon฀ the฀ collegiality฀of฀the฀strategic฀management฀ was฀ consistent฀ with฀ indications฀ in฀ the฀ literature฀that฀higher฀level฀students฀(i.e.,฀ those฀ taking฀ higher฀ level฀ courses)฀ are฀ generally฀more฀motivated฀and฀discrimi-nating฀in฀their฀evaluation฀of฀instructors฀ than฀ lower฀ level฀ students฀ (Langbein,฀ 1994).฀ The฀ instrument฀ for฀ data฀ collec-tion฀ was฀ a฀ classroom฀ version฀ of฀ the฀ MLQ฀Form฀5x-Short฀developed฀by฀Bass฀ and฀Avolio฀(2000)฀that฀comprises฀Likert฀ scales฀designed฀to฀measure฀dimensions฀ of฀ full-range฀ leadership฀ (i.e.,฀ transfor-mational,฀transactional,฀and฀laissez-faire฀ leadership฀ characteristics)฀ and฀ three฀ leadership฀ outcomes.฀ The฀ transforma-tional฀leadership฀scales฀contained฀in฀the฀ MLQ฀ are฀ the฀ following:฀ (a)฀ Idealized฀

Influence฀ (Attributed),฀ (b)฀ Idealized฀ Influence฀ (Behavior),฀ (c)฀ Inspirational฀ Motivation,฀ (d)฀ Individual฀ Consider-ation,฀ and฀ (e)฀ Intellectual฀ Stimulation.฀ The฀ three฀ leadership฀ outcome฀ scales฀ measure฀ extra฀ effort฀ (by฀ those฀ being฀ led),฀(leadership)฀effectiveness,฀and฀sat- isfaction฀(with฀the฀leader).฀The฀transfor-mational฀ leadership฀ characteristics฀ are฀ described฀below.

Idealized฀ influence.฀The฀ leader฀ pro-vides฀ vision฀ and฀ a฀ sense฀ of฀ mission,฀ expresses฀ confidence฀ in฀ the฀ vision,฀ instills฀pride,฀gains฀respect฀and฀trust,฀and฀ increases฀ optimism.฀ The฀ leader฀ excites฀ subordinates฀and฀inspires฀their฀complete฀ faith฀ in฀ him฀ or฀ her.฀ This฀ characteristic฀ is฀a฀measure฀of฀the฀extent฀of฀followers’฀ admiration฀ and฀ respect฀ for฀ the฀ leader.฀ The฀ separation฀ of฀ idealized฀ influence฀ into฀ attributed฀ and฀ behavior฀ aspects฀ in฀ the฀MLQ฀reflects฀the฀view฀that฀this฀char-acteristic฀is฀demonstrated฀by฀leadership฀ behavior฀and฀is฀also฀a฀quality฀attributed฀ to฀a฀leader฀by฀followers.

Inspirational฀ motivation.฀The฀ leader฀ acts฀as฀a฀model฀for฀subordinates,฀commu-nicates฀a฀vision฀in฀an฀appealing฀way,฀and฀ uses฀symbols฀to฀focus฀efforts.฀He฀or฀she฀ communicates฀ high-performance฀ expec-tations.฀ This฀ dimension฀ is฀ a฀ measure฀ of฀ the฀ leader’s฀ ability฀ to฀ engender฀ confi-dence฀in฀the฀leader’s฀vision฀and฀values.

Individual฀ consideration.฀ The฀ leader฀ coaches฀and฀mentors,฀provides฀continu-ous฀ feedback,฀ and฀ links฀ organizational฀ members’฀ needs฀ to฀ the฀ organization’s฀ mission.฀ Such฀ a฀ leader฀ will฀ give฀ atten-tion฀ to฀ members฀ in฀ danger฀ of฀ being฀ neglected.฀Individual฀consideration฀is฀a฀ measure฀of฀the฀extent฀to฀which฀the฀lead-er฀cares฀about฀the฀individual฀follower’s฀ concerns฀and฀developmental฀needs.฀

Intellectual฀ stimulation.฀The฀ leader฀ stimulates฀followers฀to฀rethink฀old฀ways฀ of฀ doing฀ things฀ and฀ to฀ reassess฀ their฀ old฀ values฀ and฀ beliefs.฀ This฀ dimension฀ is฀ concerned฀ with฀ the฀ degree฀ to฀ which฀ followers฀ are฀ provided฀ with฀ interesting฀ and฀ challenging฀ tasks฀ and฀ encouraged฀ to฀solve฀problems฀in฀their฀own฀way.

The฀above฀description฀of฀transforma- tional฀leadership฀characteristics฀synthe-sizes฀ accounts฀ from฀ a฀ number฀ of฀ lead-ership฀ sources฀ (e.g.,฀ Bass,฀ 1990;฀ Den฀ Hartog,฀Van฀Muijen,฀&฀Koopman,฀1997;฀ Hinkin฀ &฀ Tracey,฀ 1999;฀ House,฀ Span-gler,฀&฀Woycke,฀1991;฀Hunt,฀1991).

Bringing฀ 20฀ years฀ of฀ experience฀ as฀ a฀ business฀academic฀and฀instructor฀in฀Hong฀ Kong฀universities฀to฀this฀task,฀I฀modified฀ the฀MLQ฀Form฀5x-Short฀(Bass฀&฀Avolio,฀ 2000)฀ for฀ a฀ classroom฀ setting.฀ Then฀ a฀ senior฀ university฀ academic฀ and฀ instruc-tor฀ in฀ the฀ field฀ of฀ educational฀ research฀ with฀a฀special฀interest฀in฀transformational-฀ transactional฀ leadership฀ and฀ a฀ university฀ academic฀ and฀ instructor฀ in฀ the฀ field฀ of฀ English฀ language฀ teaching฀ scrutinized฀ these฀modifications.฀I฀made฀further฀modi-lation฀ procedure:฀ A฀ bilingual฀ translator฀ translated฀the฀aforementioned฀classroom-setting฀version฀of฀the฀MLQ฀฀into฀Chinese;฀ and฀ then฀ a฀ second฀ bilingual฀ translator,฀ who฀ was฀ unfamiliar฀ with฀ the฀ efforts฀ of฀ the฀first฀bilingual฀translator,฀translated฀the฀ Chinese฀ version฀ back฀ into฀ English.฀ The฀ following฀are฀a฀sample฀of฀transformational฀ classroom฀leadership฀items฀resulting฀from฀ the฀above฀procedure:฀

Ideal฀ influence–attributed.฀He/She฀ is฀ not฀only฀concerned฀about฀his/her฀own฀ interests,฀but฀is฀genuinely฀concerned฀ about฀the฀progress฀made฀by฀students.

Ideal฀influence–behavior.฀He/She฀explains฀ that฀a฀commitment฀to฀learning฀is฀impor-tant฀ for฀ a฀ student฀ to฀ succeed฀ in฀ this฀ course.

Inspirational฀motivation.฀ He฀/She฀enthu-siastically฀ talks฀ about฀ what฀ to฀ do฀ to฀ make฀the฀course฀a฀success.

Individual฀consideration.฀ He/She฀is฀will-ing฀to฀provide฀help฀outside฀of฀class.

Intellectual฀ stimulation.฀He/She฀ criti-cally฀ thinks฀ and฀ comments฀ on฀ the฀ fundamental฀assumptions฀of฀a฀school฀ of฀thought฀or฀theory.

(These฀items฀are฀reproduced฀by฀special฀ permission฀of฀the฀Publisher,฀Mind฀Garden,฀ Inc.,฀1690฀Woodside฀Road฀#202,฀Redwood฀ City,฀ CA฀ 94061,฀ USA;฀ http://www.mind฀ garden.com.฀ Derived฀ from฀ the฀ Multifac-tor฀Leadership฀Questionnaire฀for฀Research฀ by฀Bernard฀M.฀Bass฀and฀Bruce฀J฀Avolio.฀ Copyright฀1995,฀2000,฀by฀Bernard฀M.฀Bass฀ and฀ Bruce฀ J.฀Avolio.฀All฀ rights฀ reserved.฀ Further฀reproduction฀is฀prohibited฀without฀ the฀publisher’s฀written฀consent.)฀

Hypothesis

The฀central฀hypothesis฀was฀as฀follows: Student฀ ratings฀ of฀ each฀ of฀ the฀ trans-formational฀ dimensions฀ of฀ classroom฀฀ leadership—idealized฀ influence฀ (attrib-uted),฀ idealized฀ influence฀ (behavior),฀ inspirational฀ motivation,฀ individual฀ consideration,฀ intellectual฀ stimula-tion—will฀ correlate฀ positively฀ and฀ sig-nificantly฀ with฀ student฀ ratings฀ of฀ each฀ of฀ the฀ classroom฀ leadership฀ outcomes฀ (i.e.,฀extra฀effort,฀effectiveness,฀and฀sat-isfaction).฀

The฀ above฀ hypothesis฀ concerned฀ establishing฀the฀effect฀on฀students฀(mea-sured฀in฀terms฀of฀leadership฀outcomes)฀ of฀instructors฀displaying฀the฀transforma-tional฀leadership฀style.฀

Main฀Survey

The฀ main฀ survey฀ involved฀ five฀ instructors฀ and฀ 18฀ sections฀ (classes)฀ of฀ students฀ (instructors฀ teach฀ the฀ course฀ to฀more฀than฀one฀section)฀with฀sections฀ averaging฀ 24฀ students.฀ The฀ instrument฀ was฀distributed฀to฀all฀students฀attending฀ each฀of฀the฀classes฀on฀the฀10th฀week฀of฀ a฀13-week฀semester฀in฀the฀autumn฀of฀the฀ 2002–2003฀ academic฀ year.฀ The฀ timing฀ of฀the฀survey฀was฀to฀ensure฀that฀students฀ had฀sufficient฀experience฀of฀their฀class-room฀instructors’฀style฀to฀give฀informed฀ answers฀to฀items฀in฀the฀instrument.฀The฀ instrument฀ allowed฀ for฀ complete฀ ano-nymity฀because฀student฀names฀were฀not฀

I฀ applied฀ confirmatory฀ factor฀ analysis฀ (CFA)฀to฀the฀2002–2003฀data฀set฀by฀using฀ LISREL฀8.54฀(Joreskog฀&฀Sorbom,฀2002)฀ with฀ the฀ original฀ full-range฀ leadership฀ model฀(Avolio,฀Bass,฀&฀Dong,฀1999;฀Avo-lio,฀Bass,฀&฀Jung฀1995;฀Bass,฀1985;฀Bass฀ &฀ Avolio,฀ 2000)฀ as฀ the฀ reference฀ point.฀ CFA฀indicated฀that฀the฀original฀full-range฀ leadership฀ model฀ fitted฀ the฀ Hong฀ Kong฀ data฀well฀(GFI฀=฀.93,฀AGFI฀=฀.90,฀SRMR฀ =฀.06,฀RMSEA฀=฀.09,฀CFI฀=฀.94,฀IFI฀=฀.94,฀ NNFI฀ =฀ .92).฀ In฀ other฀ words,฀ the฀ class-room฀leadership฀model฀that฀was฀reflected฀ in฀the฀instrument฀developed฀for฀the฀present฀

study฀ kept฀ the฀ original฀ full-range฀ leader-ship฀model฀conceptually฀intact.

I฀ used฀ Cronbach’s฀ (1951)฀ alpha฀ to฀ test฀ the฀ internal฀ consistency–reliability฀ of฀ the฀ scales฀ composing฀ the฀ classroom฀ leadership฀instrument.฀Nunnally฀(1978)฀ and฀Peter฀(1979)฀have฀argued฀generally฀ for฀ an฀ internal฀ consistency–reliability฀ criterion฀ of฀ .70฀ for฀ widely฀ used฀ scales,฀ and฀ seven฀ of฀ the฀ leadership฀ dimension฀ scales฀either฀met฀or฀exceeded฀that฀crite-rion฀ with฀ the฀ Individual฀ Consideration฀ scale฀ falling฀ marginally฀ short฀ of฀ the฀ standard฀ at฀ .68.฀ No฀ scale฀ had฀ a฀ score฀ below฀.60,฀a฀criterion฀that฀is฀considered฀ acceptable฀ in฀ social฀ science฀ research฀ (Anastasi,฀1990)฀particularly฀in฀the฀case฀ of฀ an฀ exploratory฀ study฀ (Nunnally).฀ Therefore,฀alpha฀scores฀were฀acceptable฀ because฀the฀present฀study฀was฀an฀initial฀ investigation฀into฀modifying฀the฀original฀ MLQ฀ for฀ a฀ classroom฀ setting.฀ In฀ sum-mary,฀ CFA฀ and฀ alpha฀ scores฀ indicated฀ that฀the฀classroom฀leadership฀instrument฀ not฀only฀reflected฀the฀factor฀structure฀of฀ the฀original฀transformational-transaction฀ leadership฀ model฀ but฀ also฀ was฀ capable฀ of฀the฀valid฀and฀reliable฀measurement฀of฀ this฀model.

Follow-Up฀Survey

To฀ test฀ for฀ same-source฀ bias,฀ I฀ con-ducted฀a฀follow-up฀survey฀in฀the฀autumn฀ semester฀of฀the฀academic฀year฀after฀that฀ of฀ the฀ main฀ survey.฀ As฀ with฀ the฀ main฀ survey,฀students฀in฀the฀2003–2004฀aca-demic฀year฀completed฀the฀instrument฀in฀ the฀ 10th฀ week฀ of฀ the฀ 13-week฀ semes-ter,฀ and฀ the฀ follow-up฀ survey฀ allowed฀ for฀ complete฀ anonymity.฀ The฀ study฀ addressed฀ same-source฀ bias฀ via฀ two฀ of฀ the฀ procedural฀ remedies฀ recommend-ed฀ by฀ Podsakoff,฀ Mackenzie,฀ Lee,฀ and฀ Podsakoff฀(2003).฀First,฀I฀did฀not฀obtain฀ measures฀of฀predictor฀and฀criterion฀vari-ables฀solely฀from฀the฀same฀source฀(i.e.,฀ although฀the฀main-survey฀cohort฀of฀stu-dents฀ responded฀ to฀ the฀ full฀ version฀ of฀ the฀ instrument฀ containing฀ both฀ predic-tor฀and฀criterion฀variables,฀the฀different฀ follow-up-survey฀ cohort฀ responded฀ to฀ a฀ modified฀ instrument฀ that฀ contained฀ only฀ the฀ criterion฀ variables).฀ Second,฀ the฀ change฀ of฀ response฀ format฀ from฀ a฀ Likert฀ scale฀ in฀ the฀ main฀ survey฀ to฀ a฀ semantic฀differential฀scale฀in฀the฀follow-up฀ survey฀ ensured฀ that฀ measurement฀

of฀ the฀ predictor฀ and฀ criterion฀ variables฀ took฀place฀under฀different฀conditions฀or฀ circumstances฀ as฀ defined฀ by฀ Podsakoff฀ et฀ al.฀ The฀ 2003–2004฀ survey฀ produced฀ 146฀ usable฀ responses฀ (a฀ response฀ rate฀ of฀75%).฀

RESULTS

The฀ present฀ study฀ indicated฀ that฀ scores฀ on฀ each฀ of฀ the฀ transformational฀ classroom฀ leadership฀ dimensions฀ were฀ significantly฀ and฀ positively฀ correlated฀ with฀ scores฀ on฀ each฀ of฀ the฀ classroom฀ leadership฀ outcomes.฀ Spearman’s฀ rho฀ correlations฀ of฀ each฀ transformational฀ dimension฀ with฀ each฀ of฀ the฀ leadership฀ outcomes฀ ranged฀ from฀ .29฀ to฀ .47฀ (.01฀ significance฀level)฀for฀the฀study฀overall฀ (i.e.,฀ all฀ instructors฀ and฀ all฀ students).฀ I฀ observed฀ a฀ similar฀ pattern฀ of฀ corre-lations฀ when฀ the฀ results฀ were฀ broken฀ down฀ per฀ instructor.฀ Therefore,฀ the฀ results฀supported฀the฀hypothesis.฀Same-source฀bias฀was฀not฀a฀significant฀factor฀ because฀ leadership฀ outcome฀ scores฀ in฀ the฀2002–2003฀and฀2003–2004฀surveys฀ were฀strongly฀correlated฀at฀the฀.01฀sig-nificance฀level฀for฀the฀study฀overall฀(i.e.,฀ extra฀ effort฀p฀ =฀ .89,฀ effectiveness฀p฀ =฀ .94,฀ and฀ satisfaction฀p฀ =฀ .97)฀ and฀ per฀ instructor฀(lowest฀correlation฀p฀=฀.86).฀฀

DISCUSSION

The฀ results฀ of฀ this฀ study฀ indicated฀ that฀ instructors฀ displaying฀ transfor-mational฀ leadership฀ qualities฀ in฀ the฀ classroom฀ had฀ a฀ positive฀ and฀ signifi-cant฀influence฀on฀student฀perception฀of฀ classroom฀dynamics฀measured฀in฀terms฀ of฀the฀three฀leadership฀outcomes:฀extra฀ effort,฀ effectiveness,฀ and฀ satisfaction.฀ These฀ results฀ are฀ consistent฀ with฀ the฀ substantial฀body฀of฀findings฀on฀transfor-mational฀ leadership฀ that฀ suggests฀ that฀ subordinates฀ view฀ the฀ style฀ positively฀ in฀ terms฀ of฀ effectiveness,฀ satisfaction,฀ and฀ motivation฀ to฀ expend฀ effort.฀ The฀ last฀outcome฀is฀of฀particular฀interest฀in฀ a฀ university฀ education฀ context฀ because฀ of฀ the฀ aforementioned฀ student฀ effort–฀ performance฀link.฀

The฀consistency฀of฀the฀present฀results฀ with฀ general฀ findings฀ is฀ promising฀ in฀ view฀ of฀ the฀ other฀ benefits฀ of฀ transfor-mational฀ leadership฀ indicated฀ in฀ the฀ general฀ literature฀ that,฀ in฀ addition฀ to฀

the฀ extra-effort฀ outcome,฀ have฀ prima฀ facie฀relevance฀to฀higher฀education.฀For฀ example,฀Coad฀and฀Berry฀(1998)฀found฀ that฀ perceived฀ transformational฀ leader-ship฀ variables฀ were฀ positively฀ corre-lated฀ with฀ participants’฀learning฀ goal฀ orientation,฀ a฀ concept฀ defined฀ as฀ fol-lows:฀“Individuals฀with฀a฀learning฀goal฀ orientation฀ have฀ an฀ intrinsic฀ interest฀ in฀ their฀ work,฀ view฀ themselves฀ as฀ being฀ curious,฀ and฀ choose฀ challenging฀ tasks฀ that฀provide฀opportunities฀for฀learning”฀ (p.฀ 164).฀ Equally,฀ studies฀ have฀ linked฀ transformational฀ leadership฀ with฀ inno-vation฀ (Howell฀ &฀ Higgins,฀ 1990),฀ idea฀ generation฀(Sosik,฀1997),฀and฀creativity฀ (Al-Beraidi฀&฀Rickards,฀2003).฀Further-more,฀research฀has฀suggested฀that฀there฀ may฀be฀a฀positive฀relationship฀between฀ transformational฀ leadership฀ character-istics฀ and฀ ethics.฀ For฀ example,฀ Simons฀ (1999)฀ included฀ “behavioral฀ integrity”฀ as฀ a฀ critical฀ component฀ of฀ his฀ trans-formational฀ leadership฀ model฀ (p.฀ 90).฀ Equally,฀ Atwater,฀ Penn,฀ and฀ Rucker฀ (1991)฀found฀that฀transformational฀lead-ers฀ are฀ associated฀ with฀ ethical฀ traits฀ more฀ frequently฀ by฀ their฀ subordinates฀ than฀ are฀ nontransformational฀ leaders.฀ Similarly,฀ Parry฀ and฀ Proctor-Thomson฀ (2002)฀found฀a฀significant฀positive฀cor- relation฀between฀transformational฀lead- ership฀and฀perceived฀leadership฀integri-ty.฀In฀the฀spirit฀of฀such฀findings,฀Carlson฀ and฀Perrewe฀(1995)฀have฀gone฀so฀far฀as฀ to฀ state฀ that฀ “transformational฀ leader-ship฀ is฀ viewed฀ as฀ the฀ best฀ approach฀ for฀ instilling฀ ethical฀ behavior”฀ (p.฀ 5).฀ Therefore,฀ in฀ addition฀ to฀ the฀ findings฀ of฀ the฀ present฀ study—in฀ particular฀ the฀ finding฀ of฀ the฀ potential฀ of฀ transforma-tional฀classroom฀leadership฀to฀stimulate฀ students’฀ academic฀ effort—the฀ litera-ture฀ suggests฀ that฀ the฀ transformational฀ instructor฀could฀foster฀students’฀intellec-tual฀ curiosity,฀ facilitate฀ creativity,฀ and฀ stimulate฀ethical฀conduct.฀

Limitations฀and฀Further฀Study

The฀present฀results฀are฀promising฀but฀ need฀ to฀ be฀ confirmed฀ in฀ further฀ stud-ies,฀particularly฀in฀the฀more฀speculative฀ areas฀such฀as฀those฀of฀fostering฀intellec-tual฀curiosity,฀facilitating฀creativity,฀and฀ stimulating฀ ethical฀ conduct.฀ The฀ study฀ was฀also฀limited฀in฀that฀the฀sample฀was฀ confined฀to฀the฀instructors฀and฀students฀

of฀ one฀ capstone฀ course฀ in฀ one฀ of฀ the฀ eight฀universities฀in฀Hong฀Kong.฀There-fore,฀ future฀ researchers฀ must฀ do฀ more฀ work฀to฀confirm฀the฀results.฀That฀work฀ will฀involve฀additional฀courses฀and฀uni-versities฀to฀produce฀more฀generalizable฀ results.฀ Furthermore,฀ the฀ findings฀ were฀ correlational฀ and฀ susceptible฀ to฀ com-mon฀ method฀ error.฀ I฀ recognized฀ and฀ addressed฀this฀circumstance฀by฀varying฀ both฀the฀source฀and฀the฀method.

Despite฀ its฀ limited฀ scope,฀ the฀ study฀ provided฀an฀initial฀indication฀of฀an฀asso-ciation฀ of฀ transformational฀ classroom฀ leadership฀with฀positive฀classroom฀lead-ership฀outcomes.฀In฀particular,฀the฀study฀ indicated฀ the฀ potential฀ of฀ transforma- tional฀classroom฀leadership฀for฀generat-ing฀ extra฀ study฀ effort฀ by฀ students฀ that฀ has฀ direct฀ educational฀ value฀ in฀ terms฀ of฀their฀achievement฀(Carbonaro,฀2005;฀ Eskew฀ &฀ Faley,฀ 1988;฀ Johnson฀ et฀ al.,฀ 2002;฀Michaels฀&฀Miethe,฀1989;฀Naser฀ &฀Peel,฀1998).฀I฀hope฀that฀both฀the฀pres-ent฀ study’s฀ findings฀ and฀ the฀ aforemen-tioned฀ potential฀ of฀ the฀ transformational฀ classroom฀style฀to฀foster฀students’฀intel-lectual฀curiosity,฀facilitate฀creativity,฀and฀ stimulate฀ ethical฀ conduct฀ will฀ stimulate฀ further฀research฀on฀the฀effects฀of฀trans-formational฀leadership฀in฀the฀university฀ classroom.฀ Furthermore,฀ because฀ the฀ present฀ study฀ and฀ its฀ findings฀ are฀ out-comes฀of฀an฀initial฀desire฀to฀explore฀the฀ results฀of฀business฀academics’฀practicing฀ what฀they฀teach฀in฀the฀classroom,฀I฀also฀ hope฀ that฀ there฀ will฀ be฀ more฀ practice-what-we-teach฀initiatives.฀

NOTES

James฀ S.฀ Pounder฀ is฀ a฀ professor฀ of฀ manage-ment฀ and฀ director฀ of฀ graduate฀ programs฀ in฀ the฀ College฀ of฀ Business฀ Administration,฀ Abu฀ Dhabi฀ University.฀ He฀ holds฀ doctorates฀ in฀ management฀ and฀ education฀ and฀ has฀ published฀ extensively฀ in฀ both฀fields.

Correspondence฀ concerning฀ this฀ article฀ should฀ be฀ addressed฀ to฀ Dr.฀ James฀ Pounder,฀ Provost฀ Office,฀ Abu฀ Dhabi฀ University,฀ P.O.฀ Box฀ 59911,฀ Abu฀Dhabi,฀United฀Arab฀Emirates.

E-mail:฀james.pounder@adu.ac.ae

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