Realisasi Kendaraan Yang Mengikuti Suatu Lintasan Tertentu Dengan Pengendali Logika Fuzzy.

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Abstrak

Pada saat ini teknologi robot berkembang dengan sangat cepat. Robot-robot tersebut banyak digunakan dalam berbagai bidang seperti: bidang penelitian, industri, kedokteran, eksplorasi ruang angkasa dan lain-lain. Salah satu jenis robot yang banyak digunakan dalam bidang industri yaitu robot yang dapat mengikuti lintasan garis tertentu (line follower robot). Pada umumnya robot tipe ini berbentuk kendaraan.

Realisasi hardware dari line follower robot menggunakan penjejakan sensor inframerah untuk mendeteksi garis lintasan berwarna hitam pada bidang alas berwarna putih. Sensor yang digunakan berupa sensor optocoupler sebanyak enam buah. Pengaturan kecepatan dari motor dc dilakukan dengan metoda PWM oleh mikrokontroler. Mikrokontroler ATMega16 ini juga sebagai pengatur kerja antara satu komponen dengan yang lain. Metoda pengendalian yang digunakan adalah logika fuzzy, namun proses perhitungan logika fuzzy dilakukan di luar mikrokontroler, dengan menggunakan software petrafuz. Hasil input dan output logika fuzzy tersebut kemudian disimpan ke dalam mikrokontroler. Lintasan yang diuji coba berupa garis lintasan lurus, belok melengkung dan persimpangan.

Hasil percobaan yang dilakukan menunjukkan bahwa kendaraan dapat mengikuti bentuk garis lintasan yang harus diikuti. Jadi dapat disimpulkan, realisasi kendaraan secara hardware berhasil dibuat. Sedangkan untuk pengendali dengan logika fuzzy, hasil yang dicapai masih belum sempurna. Hal ini karena penulis mengalami kesulitan dalam membuat program pengendali logika fuzzy. Sehingga pengendali logika fuzzy yang dipakai belum dapat dilakukan oleh mikrokontroler sendiri.

Universitas Kristen Maranatha

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Abstract

In the past few years, the development of robotic technology is growing very rapidly. Those robots are use in many different fields, such as: experimental, medical, industrial, space exploration and etc. One type of robot that commonly use in industrial fields is a line follower robot.

This final project goal is to make a realization of a line follower robot using fuzzy logic controller. This robot is using six infrared sensors (optocoupler sensor) to detect a black line in a white background. The dc motor speed is controlled by microcontroller’s PWM output. This microcontroller also works as a control center for other components. The controller of this line follower robot is using a fuzzy logic control. However the computation of fuzzy logic Is done by using Petrafuz software. Then the input and output value from Petrafuz software will be store in microcontroller. The shapes of tracks that will be test are a straight line, a slope curve with 900 angle and a cross section.

The experiment showed that the line follower robot is capable in following the shapes of tracks. From the result, we can say that the realization of a line follower robot is succeed. However for the fuzzy logic controller is not perfect. This because the computation process of fuzzy logic is not done by microcontroller itself.

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KATA PENGANTAR

Pertama-tama, puji dan syukur kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa karena atas berkat dan rahmat-Nya, penulis dapat menyelesaikan laporan tugas akhir ini tepat pada waktunya.

Tugas Akhir yang berjudul “Realisasi Kendaraan Yang Mengikuti

Suatu Lintasan Tertentu Dengan Pengendali Logika Fuzzy“ dibuat untuk

memenuhi persyaratan program studi Strata Satu Fakultas Teknik Jurusan Teknik Elektro di Universitas Kristen Maranatha.

Dalam menyelesaikan tugas akhir ini bukan suatu hal yang mudah, banyak halangan dan masalah yang yang harus dihadapi karena keterbatasan pengalaman dan pengetahuan. Penulis menyadari bahwa tanpa anugerah Tuhan, serta bantuan dari berbagai pihak, tidak dapat menyelesaikan tugas akhir ini dengan baik. Oleh karena itu, tidak lupa penulis ucapkan banyak terima kasih kepada pihak-pihak yang telah membantu dalam pengerjaan kerja praktek ini, yaitu:

1. Bapak Agustinus, ST.,MT. selaku pembimbing pertama tugas akhir yang telah memberikan masukan pengetahuan dan ide-ide serta membimbing dalam pembuatan tugas akhir ini.

2. Bapak Muliady, ST., MT. selaku pembimbing kedua tugas akhir yang telah mendorong dan memberikan masukan serta pemecahan masalah dalam menyelesaikan tugas akhir ini.

3. Bapak Ir. Aan Darmawan, MT., selaku Ketua Jurusan Teknik Elektro perioda 2004-2008 yang telah membantu memberikan kesempatan dan masukan-masukan dalam menyelesaikan tugas akhir ini..

4. Ibu Ir. Anita Supartono Msc., selaku koordinator TA yang tetap mendorong serta memberikan kesempatan untuk menyelesaikan tugas akhir ini.

5. Kepada bapak dan ibu yang bekerja di bagian Tata Usaha Jurusan Teknik Elektro.

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6. Kepada bapak Ade dan bapak Endang yang bekerja di Laboratorium Elektronika dan Laboratorium Fisika yang telah membantu menyediakan peralatan-peralatan yang dibutuhkan.

7. Kepada bapak dan ibu yang bekerja di bagian Perpustakaan Fakultas Teknik.

8. Papa, mama, atas dorongan moril dan dukungan doa yang telah menguatkan penulis.

9. Tony, Heru, Yence, Alex, Andris, Harrison, Tina, Pohan, Citra, Mario Koba, Willy, Nico, dan Dennis yang telah memberikan dukungan moril dan bantuan dalam mengerjakan tugas akhir ini.

10.Teman-teman dan pihak-pihak lain yang telah membantu dalam mengerjakan tugas akhir ini, yang tidak dapat disebutkan satu-persatu. Demikian tugas akhir ini disusun, sehingga kiranya dapat memberikan pemahaman dan tambahan pengetahuan bagi pembaca pada umumnya dan mahasiswa secara khusus. Penulis juga menyadari bahwa laporan ini jauh dari sempurna sehingga apabila ditemukan kesalahan, penulis mohon maaf yang sebesar-besarnya. Penulis juga mengharapkan kritik dan saran dari pembaca.

Bandung, Juli 2006

Penulis

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DAFTAR ISI

Halaman

LEMBAR PENGESAHAN SURAT PERNYATAAN

ABSTRAK ... i

ABSTRACT...ii

KATA PENGANTAR ... iii

DAFTAR ISI ... v

DAFTAR GAMBAR ... viii

DAFTAR TABEL ...xi

DAFTAR RUMUS ... xii

BAB I PENDAHULUAN ... 1

I.1. Latar Belakang ... 1

I.2. Identifikasi masalah ... 2

I.3. Tujuan ... 2

I.4. Spesifikasi Alat ... 2

I.5. Pembatasan Masalah... 2

I.6. Sistematika Penulisan ... 3

BAB II LANDASAN TEORI ... 5

II.1. Definisi Robot ... 5

II.1.1. Klasifikasi Robot... 6

II.1.1.1. Klasifikasi Robot berdasarkan Sistem Koordinat .... 7

II.1.1.2. Klasifikasi Robot berdasarkan Metoda kendali ... 11

II.2. Sensor ... 12

II.2.1. Infra Merah ... 13

II.3. Logika Fuzzy ... 15

II.3.1 Himpunan Fuzzy ... 16

II.3.1.1. Fungsi Keanggotaan Himpunan Fuzzy ... 19

II.3.1.2. Aturan Fuzzy Jika-Maka... 22

II.3.2 Fuzzy Interface Systems (FIS) ... 22

II.3.2.1. Fuzzifikasi ... 23

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II.3.2.2. Operator Fuzzy ... 24

II.3.2.3. Metoda Implikasi ... 25

II.3.2.4. Agresi Keluaran ... 25

II.3.2.5. Defuzzifikasi... 26

II.3.2.6. Metoda Fuzzy Tipe Sugeno ... 27

II.4. Mikrokontroler... 28

II.4.1 Memori ... 28

II.4.2 Bagian Input/Output (I/O) ... 29

II.4.3 Peripheral Mikrokontroler ATmega16 ... 30

II.4.4 Sleep Mode ... 36

II.4.5 Mode Pengalamatan ... 37

II.4.6 Perangkat Lunak ... 41

II.4.6.1. AVR Studio 4 ... 43

II.4.6.2. Perangkat Antarmuka antara Komputer dengan Mikrokontroler ... 44

II.4.6.2.1. Perangkat Keras Antara Komputer dengan Mikrokontroler ... 45

II.4.6.2.2. Perangkat Lunak Antara Komputer dengan Mikrokontroler ... 45

II.4.6.3. Petrafuz ... 46

BAB III PERANCANGAN PERANGKAT KERAS DAN LUNAK ... 48

III.1. Diagram Blok... 48

III.2. Perancangan Perangkat Keras ... 51

III.3.1. Rangkaian Catu Daya ... 51

III.3.2. Sensor Lintasan Garis ... 52

III.3.3. Rangkaian Output Motor DC ... 54

III.3.4. Mikrokontroller ATmega16 ... 55

III.3. Perancangan Perangkat Lunak ... 56

III.3.1. Perancangan Logika Fuzzy ... 57

III.3.1.1. Fungsi Keanggotaan Input Himpunan Fuzzy ... 59

III.3.1.2. Fungsi Keanggotaan Output Himpunan Fuzzy ... 60

III.3.2. Perancangan Program Mikrokontroller ... 61

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BAB IV Data Pengamatan Kendaraan Yang Mengikuti Suatu Lintasan Tertentu ... 70 IV.1. Posisi Sensor dengan Bidang Lintasan ... 70 IV.2. Hasil Input-Output Pengendali Logika Fuzzy dengan

Software Petrafuz... 72 IV.3. Pengamatan Jalan Kendaraan Yang Mengikuti Garis

Lintasan Tertentu ... 74 BAB V KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN ... 77 DAFTAR PUSTAKA... 78 LAMPIRAN A Gambar Foto Alat ... A LAMPIRAN B Skema Rangkaian Alat... B LAMPIRAN C Perangkat Lunak ...C LAMPIRAN D Datasheet Komponen ...D

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DAFTAR GAMBAR

Halaman

Gambar 2.1 Robot Cantilevered Cartesian ... 7

Gambar 2.2 Robot Gantry-Style Cartesian... 8

Gambar 2.3 Robot Koordinat Cylindrical... 8

Gambar 2.4 Robot Koordinat Spherical... 9

Gambar 2.5 Robot Joint Spherical Murni ... 9

Gambar 2.6 Robot Parallelogram Spherical... 10

Gambar 2.7 Robot Cylindrical Joint... 10

Gambar 2.8 Diagram Blok Sensor Optocoupler... 12

Gambar 2.9 Sensor Optocoupler... 12

Gambar2.10 Daerah Frekuensi Gelombang Infra Merah ... 13

Gambar2.11 Daerah Panjang Gelombang Infra Merah... 14

Gambar2.12 Himpunan Fuzzy dan Fungsi Keangggotaannya... 17

Gambar2.13 Diagram Venn Gabungan Dua Himpunan ... 17

Gambar2.14 Diagram Venn Irisan dua Himpunan ... 18

Gambar2.15 Diagram Venn Komplemen Dua Himpunan... 18

Gambar 2.16a Fungsi Keanggotaan Himpunan Logika Konvensional... 19

Gambar 2.16b Fungsi Keanggotaan Himpunan Logika Fuzzy... 19

Gambar 2.17 Fungsi Keanggotaan S ... 20

Gambar 2.18 Fungsi Keanggotaan π... 20

Gambar 2.19 Fungsi Keanggotaan Trapesium ... 21

Gambar 2.20 Fungsi Keanggotaan Segitiga ... 21

Gambar 2.21 Fungsi Keanggotaan Gauss... 22

Gambar 2.22 Arsitektur Fuzzy Interface System ... 23

Gambar 2.23 Proses Fuzzifikasi ... 23

Gambar 2.24 Proses Aplikasi Operator OR Metoda MAX ... 24

Gambar 2.25 Proses Impilkasi Metoda MIN ... 25

Gambar 2.26 Proses Agresi Keluaran dengan Metoda MAX... 26

Gambar 2.27 Arsitektur Atmega16 ... 31

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Gambar 2.28 Blok Diagram ATmega16 ... 32

Gambar 2.29 Mikrokontroller Atmega16 ... 33

Gambar 2.30 Instruksi Sleep Mode ... 36

Gambar 2.31 Direct Single Register Addressing... 38

Gambar 2.32 Direct Register Addressing dengan 2 register... 38

Gambar 2.33 I/O Direct Addressing... 39

Gambar 2.34 Data Indirect Addressing with Pre-Decrement... 39

Gambar 2.35 Data Indirect Addressing with Post-increment... 40

Gambar 2.36 Program Memory Constant Addressing... 40

Gambar 2.37 Program Memory with post-Increment... 41

Gambar 2.38 Tampilan Programmer AVR Studio 4 ... 44

Gambar 2.39 Diagram Blok AVR ISP ... 45

Gambar 2.40 Tampilan dari Software downloader ALL-11 ... 46

Gambar 2.41 Tampilan Software Petrafuz... 47

Gambar 3.1 Blok Diagram Robot... 48

Gambar 3.2 Blok Kerja Alat ... 49

Gambar 3.3 Rangkaian Catu Daya Mikrokontroler dan Sensor ... 51

Gambar 3.4 Rangkaian Catu Daya untuk Motor DC ... 52

Gambar 3.5 Rangkaian Sensor Optocoupler... 53

Gambar 3.6 Posisi Sensor GP2S28 pada badan PCB ... 53

Gambar 3.7 Skema Rangkaian Kendaraan ... 56

Gambar 3.8Flowchart Logika Fuzzy untuk Line Follower ... 58

Gambar 3.9 Bentuk Membership Function untuk Input Error dan Derror 59 Gambar 3.10 Bentuk membership Function Output... 60

Gambar 3.11 Flowchart Sistem ... 63

Gambar 3.12 Flowchart Subroutine PB ... 64

Gambar 3.13 Flowchart Subroutine PS ... 65

Gambar 3.14 Flowchart Subroutine NS ... 66

Gambar 3.15 Flowchart Subroutine NB ... 67

Gambar 3.16 Flowchart Subroutine Z ... 68

Gambar 3.17 Flowchart Subroutine Tunda ... 68

Gambar 3.18 Flowchart Subroutine Sleep ... 69

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Gambar 4.1 Pantulan Sensor Terhadap Bidang Lintasan... 71

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DAFTAR TABEL

Halaman

Tabel 2..1 Fungsi Pengganti Port B ... 34

Tabel 2.2 Fungsi Pengganti Port C ... 35

Tabel 2.3 Fungsi Pengganti Port D ... 35

Tabel 2.4 Nilai bit SM0, SM1, SM2 untuk menentukan mode sleep .... 37

Tabel 3.1 Membership Function Input dan posisi point-pointnya ... 60

Tabel 3.2 Membership Function Output dan posisi point-pointnya ... 61

Tabel 3.3 Hasil Selisih Gain PWM dengan Logika Fuzzy ... 62

Tabel 4.1 Tegangan Output Sensor ... 71

Tabel 4.2 Tegangan Output Hasil Deteksi pada Input Sensor ... 72

Tabel 4.3 Tabel Selisih Gain dengan Pengendali Logika Fuzzy ...73

Tabel 4.4 Beberapa Nilai Input dan Output Fuzzy Hasil Petrafuz ... 73

Tabel 4.5 Pengamatan Gerak Kendaraan ... 74

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DAFTAR RUMUS

Halaman

Rumus 2.1 ... 13

Rumus 2.2 ... 14

Rumus 2.3 ... 15

Rumus 2.4 ... 16

Rumus 2.5 ... 17

Rumus 2.6 ... 17

Rumus 2.7 ... 18

Rumus 2.8 ... 18

Rumus 2.9 ... 24

Rumus 2.10 ... 24

Rumus 2.11 ... 24

Rumus 2.12 ... 24

Rumus 2.13 ... 25

Rumus 2.14 ... 25

Rumus 2.15 ... 26

Rumus 2.16 ... 26

Rumus 2.17 ... 27

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LAMPIRAN A

Foto Alat

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LAMPIRAN B

Skema Rangkaian Alat

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LAMPIRAN C

Perangkat Lunak

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• Rule-rule Fuzzy Logic Control untuk kendaraan yang mengikuti

suatu lintasan tertentu dengan software Petrafuz.

1. IF error IS NB AND derror IS NB THEN selisihgain IS PB 2. IF error IS NB AND derror IS NS THEN selisihgain IS PS 3. IF error IS NB AND derror IS Z THEN selisihgain IS PS 4. IF error IS NB AND derror IS PS THEN selisihgain IS PB 5. IF error IS NB AND derror IS PB THEN selisihgain IS PB 6. IF error IS NS AND derror IS NB THEN selisihgain IS PS 7. IF error IS NS AND derror IS NS THEN selisihgain IS PS 8. IF error IS NS AND derror IS Z THEN selisihgain IS PB 9. IF error IS NS AND derror IS PS THEN selisihgain IS PB 10.IF error IS NS AND derror IS PB THEN selisihgain IS PB

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• Program Mikrokontroler Perintah macro pada file avr.inc ;---; ; Load/store word dari/ke memori ;

; ldsw Z,mem

; ldiw Z,imm

.macro ldiw

ldi @0L,low(@1)

ldi @0H,high(@1)

.endm

.macro ldsw

lds @0L,@1

lds @0H,@1+1

.endm

.macro lddw

ldd @0L,@1

ldd @0H,@1+1

.endm

.macro stsw

sts @0,@1L

sts @0+1,@1H

.endm

.macro stdw

std @0,@1L

std @0+1,@1H

.endm

.macro pushw

push @0H

push @0L

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.macro popw

pop @0L

pop @0H

.endm

;---; ; Operasi Word dengan dua register ;

.macro addiw

subi @0L,low(-(@1))

sbci @0H,high(-(@1))

.endm

.macro subiw

subi @0L,low(@1)

sbci @0H,high(@1)

.endm

.macro addw

add @0L,@1L

adc @0H,@1H

.endm

.macro adcw

adc @0L,@1L

adc @0H,@1H

.endm

.macro subw

sub @0L,@1L

sbc @0H,@1H

.endm

.macro sbcw

sbc @0L,@1L

sbc @0H,@1H

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.macro cpw

cp @0L,@1L

cpc @0H,@1H

.endm

.macro cpcw

cpc @0L,@1L

cpc @0H,@1H

.endm

.macro andw

and @0L,@1L

and @0H,@1H

.endm

.macro andiw

andi @0L,low(@1)

andi @0H,high(@1)

.endm

.macro orw

or @0L,@1L

or @0H,@1H

.endm

.macro oriw

ori @0L,low(@1)

ori @0H,high(@1)

.endm

.macro lslw

lsl @0L

rol @0H

.endm

.macro lsrw

lsr @0H

ror @0L

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.macro asrw

asr @0H

ror @0L

.endm

.macro rolw

rol @0L

rol @0H

.endm

.macro rorw

ror @0H

ror @0L

.endm

.macro clrw

clr @0L

clr @0H

.endm

.macro comw

com @0L

com @0H

.endm

.macro movew

mov @0L, @1L

mov @0H, @1H

.endm

.macro tstw

cp @0L, _0

cpc @0H, _0

.endm

.macro outw

out @0H, @1H

out @0L, @1L

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.macro inw

in @0L, @1L

in @0H, @1H

.endm

;---; ; Output port immediate via r16

; outi port,var .macro outi

ldi r16,@1

out @0,r16

.endm

;---; ; Add immediate to register

.macro addi

subi @0,-(@1)

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Program Utama

;---;

; Program Line Follower Robot

; Internal Oscillator 8 Mhz, dengan low fuse bit untuk bit CKSEL 01000 dan SUT: 10 (start up time 65ms);

; Mode sleep yang digunakan power-down, dan ; ; Timer0 dan Timer2 dipakai dalam mode PWM ; ;---;

.include "m16def.inc" .include "avr.inc"

.equ RAMTOP = 0x60 .equ bit0 = 0b00000001 .equ bit1 = 0b00000010 .equ bit2 = 0b00000100 .equ bit3 = 0b00001000 .equ bit4 = 0b00010000

.equ bit5 = 0b00100000 .equ bit6 = 0b01000000 .equ bit7 = 0b10000000

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.equ setpoint = 0b00110011 .equ batasns = 0b00000110 .equ batasnb = 0b00001001 .equ batasps = 0b00001100 .equ bataspb = 0b00010100 .equ batasz = 0x00

.equ gainpb = 128 .equ gainps = 64 .equ gainz = 0 .equ gainns = 64 .equ gainnb = 128

.equ batasdens = 0b00000110 .equ batasdenb = 0b00001001 .equ batasdeps = 0b00001100 .equ batasdepb = 0b00010100 .equ batasdez = 0x00

;---;

; Tabel Interupsi ;

;---; .cseg

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; jmp 0 ; interupt USART_RXC ; jmp 0 ; interupt USART_UDRE ; jmp 0 ; interupt USART_TXC ; jmp 0 ; interupt ADC

; jmp 0 ; interupt EE_RDY ; jmp 0 ; interupt ANA_COMP ; jmp 0 ; interupt TWI

; jmp 0 ; interupt INT2 ; jmp 0 ; interupt TIMER2_COMP ; jmp 0 ; interupt SPM_RDY ;---;

;---; ; POWER ON RESET/ POWER ON ; ;---;

RESET :

ldiw A, RAMEND ; inisialisasi Stack Pointer outw SP, A ;

clr err

outi DDRA, 0b00000000 ; inisialisasi PORTA outi PORTA, 0b00000000 ; /

outi DDRB, 0b01101011 ; Inisialisasi PORTB outi PORTB, 0b10010100 ; /

outi DDRC, 0b11111111 ; Inisialisasi PORTC outi PORTC, 0b00000000 ; /

outi DDRD, 0b11111111 ; Inisialisasi PORTD outi PORTD, 0b01111111 ; /

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outi TCCR0, 0b01100101 ; Inisialisasi TIMER 0 untuk motor kiri

outi TCCR2, 0b01100111 ; Inisialisasi Timer 2 untuk motor kanan

outi OCR0, 0x7F

outi OCR2, 0x7F clr positif

clr speed

outi PORTB, 0b0100010 ; start motor kiri dan kanan

call delay

sei

;---;

; Program Utama ;

;---;

start:

rcall ceksensor cpi AL, 0x3F

breq cekerr

ldi simpan3, setpoint mov simpan1, AL cp simpan3, simpan1

brsh pos

brlo negatif

ceksensor:

outi PORTD, 0b01101010 ; pemancar sensor 1,3 dan 5 aktif

sbi PORTA, 6 ; penerima aktif

rcall wait

in AL, PORTA ; baca hasil di portA

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outi PORTA, 0b01010101 ; pemancar sensor 2,4 dan 6 aktif

sbi PORTA, 6 ; penerima aktif

rcall wait

in AL, PORTA

or AL, AH

ret cekerr:

inc err

cpi err, 0x04

breq enter_SLEEP

rcall ceksensor cpi AL, 0x3F

breq cekerr

ret

enter_SLEEP : outi PORTA, 0b00000000

outi PORTB, 0b00100010 outi PORTC, 0b00000000 outi PORTD, 0b01111111 in r16, SREG

clr positif

outi MCUCR, 0b10110011 sleep

ret

terus:

mov Esblm, E

rcall delay

(32)

pos:

sbr positif, 0 sub simpan3, simpan1 mov E, simpan3

cpi E, bataspb

brsh epb

brlo cekeps

epb:

rcall pb

rjmp terus

cekeps:

cpi E, batasps

brsh eps

brlo ez

eps:

rcall ps

rjmp terus

negatif:

cbr positif, 0 mov simpan2, simpan1 sub simpan2, simpan3 mov E, simpan2

cpi E, batasnb

brsh enb

brlo cekens

enb:

rcall nb

rjmp terus

cekens:

cpi E, batasns

brsh ens

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ens:

rcall ns

rjmp terus

ez:

rcall zero

rjmp terus

;---; ; Positif Big ; ;---; pb:

mov simpan3, E cp simpan3, Esblm brsh positifpb brlo negatifpb positifpb:

sub simpan3, Esblm mov De, simpan3

cpi De, batasdepb

brsh depb_pb

brlo cekdepb_ps

negatifpb:

mov simpan2, Esblm sub simpan2, simpan3 mov De, simpan2 cpi De, batasdenb

brsh depb_nb

brlo depb_ns

depb_pb:

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cekdepb_ps:

cpi E, batasdeps

brsh depb_ps

brlo depb_z

depb_ps:

ldi simpan1, gainns rcall kurangkec ret

depb_z:

ldi simpan1, gainnb rcall kurangkec ret

depb_nb:

cekdepb_ns:

cpi E, batasdens

brsh depb_ns

brlo depb_z

depb_ns:

;---; ; Positif Small ; ;---; ps:

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positifps:

sub simpan3, Esblm mov De, simpan3 cpi De, batasdepb

brsh deps_pb

brlo cekdeps_ps

negatifps:

brsh deps_nb

brlo deps_ns

deps_pb:

cekdeps_ps:

cpi E, batasdeps

brsh deps_ps

brlo deps_z

deps_ps:

deps_z:

deps_nb: ldi simpan1, gainns

rcall kurangkec

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cekdeps_ns:

cpi E, batasdens

brsh deps_ns

brlo deps_z

deps_ns:

;---; ; Z ; ;---; zero:

mov simpan3, E cp simpan3, Esblm brsh positifz brlo negatifz

positifz:

brsh dez_pb

brlo cekdez_ps

negatifz:

brsh dez_nb

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dez_pb:

cekdez_ps:

cpi E, batasdeps

brsh dez_ps

brlo dez_z

dez_ps:

dez_z:

ldi simpan1, gainz

rcall tetap

ret tetap:

ldi simpan1, gainz

rjmp tambahkec

ret dez_nb:

ldi simpan1, gainpb

rcall tambahkec

ret cekdez_ns:

cpi E, batasdens

brsh dez_ns

brlo dez_z

dez_ns:

ldi simpan1, gainps

rcall tambahkec

(38)

;---; ; Negatif Big ; ;---; nb:

mov simpan3, E cp simpan3, Esblm brsh positifnb brlo negatifnb positifnb:

brsh denb_pb

brlo cekdenb_ps

negatifnb:

mov simpan2, Esblm sub simpan2, simpan3

mov De, simpan2 cpi De, batasdenb

brsh denb_nb

brlo denb_ns

denb_pb:

ldi simpan1, gainpb

rcall tambahkec

ret cekdenb_ps:

cpi E, batasdeps

brsh denb_ps

(39)

denb_ps:

ldi simpan1, gainpb

rcall tambahkec

ret denb_z:

ldi simpan1, gainps

rcall tambahkec

ret denb_nb:

ldi simpan1, gainpb

rcall tambahkec

ret cekdenb_ns:

cpi E, batasdens

brsh denb_ns

brlo denb_z

denb_ns:

ldi simpan1, gainps

rcall tambahkec

ret

;---; ; Negatif Small ; ;---; ns:

mov simpan3, E cp simpan3, Esblm brsh positifns brlo negatifns positifns:

(40)

brsh dens_pb

brlo cekdens_ps

negatifns:

brsh dens_nb

brlo dens_ns

dens_pb:

ldi simpan1, gainpb

rcall tambahkec

ret cekdens_ps:

cpi E, batasdeps

brsh dens_ps

brlo dens_z

dens_ps:

ldi simpan1, gainpb

rcall tambahkec

ret dens_z:

ldi simpan1, gainpb

rcall tambahkec

ret dens_nb:

ldi simpan1, gainps

rcall tambahkec

ret cekdens_ns:

cpi E, batasdens

(41)

brlo dens_z dens_ns:

ldi simpan1, gainps

rcall tambahkec

ret

tambahkec:

in speed, OCR0 add speed, simpan1 out OCR0, speed ret

kurangkec:

in speed, OCR0 sub speed, simpan1 out OCR0, speed ret

delay :

rcall wait

ret clockwait:

push r18

ldi r18, 0x40 loncat:

dec r18

cpi r18, 0x00

brne loncat

pop r18

(42)

wait :

push r16

ldi R16, 0xFF loncat2:

dec r16

rcall clockwait cpi r16, 0x00

brne loncat2

pop r16

(43)

LAMPIRAN D

(44)



.

WIDE GAIN BANDWIDTH : 1.3MHz

.

INPUT COMMON-MODE VOLTAGE RANGE INCLUDES GROUND

.

LARGE VOLTAGE GAIN : 100dB

.

VERY LOW SUPPLY CURRENT/AMPLI : 375µA

.

LOW INPUT BIAS CURRENT : 20nA

.

LOW INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE : 5mV max. (for more accurate applications, use the equivalent parts LM124A-LM224A-LM324A which feature 3mV max)

.

LOW INPUT OFFSET CURRENT : 2nA

.

WIDE POWER SUPPLY RANGE : SINGLE SUPPLY : +3V TO +30V DUAL SUPPLIES :±1.5V TO±15V

DESCRIPTION

These circuits consist of four independent, high gain, internally frequency compensated operational amplifiers . They operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magni-tude of the power supply voltage.

Inve rting Input 2 Non-inve rting Input 2 Non-inve rting Input 1

CC

V VCC

-1 2 3 4 8 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14 + Output 3 Output 4

Non-inve rting Input 4 Inve rting Input 4

Non-inve rting Input 3

Inve rting Input 3 -+ -+ -+ -+ Output 1

Inve rting Input 1

Output 2

PIN CONNECTIONS (top view)

ORDER CODES Part Number Temperature Range Package

N D P

LM124 -55oC, +125oC • • • LM224 -40oC, +105oC • • • LM324 0oC, +70oC • • •

Example : LM224N N DIP14 (Plastic Package) D SO14 (Plastic Micropackage)

LOW POWER QUAD OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

LM124

LM224 - LM324

June 1999

P TSSOP14

(Thin Shrink Small Outline Package)

(45)

ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS

Symbol Parameter LM124 LM224 LM324 Unit

Vcc Supply Voltage ±16 or 32 V

Vi Input Voltage -0.3 to +32 V

Vid Differential Input Voltage - (*) +32 +32 +32 V

Ptot Power Dissipation N Suffix

D Suffix 500 -500 400 500 400 mW mW - Output Short-circuit Duration - (note 1) Infinite

Iin Input Current – (note 6) 50 50 50 mA

Toper Operating Free Air Temperature Range -55 to +125 -40 to +105 0 to +70 oC

Tstg Storage Temperature Range -65 to +150 -65 to +150 -65 to +150 oC

6µA

4µA 10 0µA

Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Inve rting inpu t Non-inve rting inpu t Q8 Q9 Q10 Q1 1 Q12

5 0µA Q1 3

Outp ut Q7

Q6 Q5

RS C VCC

CC

GND SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM (1/4 LM124)

LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(46)

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

VCC+= +5V, VCC–= Ground, VO= 1.4V, Tamb= +25oC (unless otherwise specified)

Symbol Parameter LM124 - LM224 - LM324 Unit

Min. Typ. Max.

Vio Input Offset Voltage (note 3)

Tamb= +25oC

LM324 Tmin.≤Tamb≤Tmax.

LM324 2 5 7 7 9 mV

Iio Input Offset Current

Tamb= +25oC

Tmin.≤Tamb≤Tmax.

2 30

100

nA

Iib Input Bias Current (note 2)

Tamb= +25oC

20 150 300

nA

Avd Large Signal Voltage Gain

(VCC+= +15V, RL= 2kΩ, VO= 1.4V to 11.4V)

Tamb= +25oC

50 25

100

V/mV

SVR Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio (RS≤10kΩ)

(VCC+= 5V to 30V)

Tamb= +25oC

65 65

110

dB

ICC Supply Current, all Amp, no load

Tamb= +25oC VCC= +5V

VCC= +30V

Tmin.≤Tamb≤Tmax. VCC= +5V

VCC= +30V

0.7 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.2 3 1.2 3 mA

Vicm Input Common Mode Voltage Range

(VCC= +30V) - (note 4)

Tamb= +25oC

0 0

VCC -1.5

VCC-2

V

CMR Common-mode Rejection Ratio (RS≤10kΩ)

Tamb= +25oC

Tmin.≤Tamb≤Tmax

70 60

80

dB

Isource Output Current Source (Vid= +1V)

VCC= +15V, Vo= +2V 20 40 70

mA

Isink Output Sink Current (Vid= -1V)

VCC= +15V, Vo= +2V

VCC= +15V, Vo= +0.2V

10 12 20 50 mA µA LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(47)

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (continued)

Symbol Parameter LM124 - LM224 - LM324 Unit

Min. Typ. Max.

VOH High Level Output Voltage

(VCC= +30V)

Tamb= +25oC RL= 2kΩ

Tamb= +25oC RL= 10kΩ

(VCC= +5V, RL= 2kΩ)

Tamb= +25oC

26 26 27 27 3.5 3 27 28 V

VOL Low Level Output Voltage (RL= 10kΩ)

Tamb= +25oC

5 20

20

mV

SR Slew Rate

VCC= 15V, VI= 0.5 to 3V, RL= 2kΩ, CL= 100pF,

unity gain) 0.4

V/µs

GBP Gain Bandwidth Product

VCC= 30V, f = 100kHz, Vin= 10mV

RL= 2kΩ, CL= 100pF 1.3

MHz

THD Total Harmonic Distortion

f = 1kHz, AV= 20dB, RL= 2kΩ, VO= 2Vpp

CL= 100pF, VCC= 30V 0.015

%

en Equivalent Input Noise Voltage

f = 1kHz, Rs= 100Ω, VCC= 30V 40

nV √Hz DVio Input Offset Voltage Drift 7 30 µV/oC

DIIO Input Offset Current Drift 10 200 pA/oC

VO1/VO2 Channel Separation (note 5)

1kHz≤f≤20kHz 120

dB

Notes : 1. Shor t -cir cui t s f rom t he out put t o VC Ccan cause excessi ve heat i ng if VC C> 15V. T he maxi mum out put cur rent is appr oxi mat el y 40mA i ndependent of the magni t ude of VC C. D estr ucti ve di ssipat i on can r es ult f r om simul ta-neous short -cir cuit on al l ampli f iers.

2. The di r ect ion of the i nput cur rent is out of t he IC . Thi s cur r ent is essenti al l y constant, i ndependent of the st ate of the out put so no l oadi ng change exists on the i nput l i nes.

3. Vo= 1. 4V , Rs = 0Ω, 5V < VCC+< 30V , 0 < Vic< VC C+- 1.5V

4. The i nput common- mode vol t age of eit her i nput si gnal volt age shoul d not be allow ed to go negat i ve by mor e than 0.3V . T he upper end of the common- mode vol tage r ange i s VC C+- 1.5V , but eit her or bot h i nput s can go to + 32V w i thout damage.

5. Due t o the proxi mit y of ex ternal component s insure t hat coupl ing i s not ori gi nat ing vi a str ay capaci t ance be-tw een these ext ernal par t s. T hi s t ypi call y can be detect ed as t his t ype of capaci tance i ncreases at higher f re-quences.

6. This input cur rent onl y exi sts w hen t he volt age at any of t he i nput leads is dr iven negat ive. It i s due t o t he coll ect or - base juncti on of t he i nput PN P transistor becomi ng forw ar d biased and ther eby act ing as input di-odes clamps. I n addit i on to thi s di ode act i on, there i s al so N PN par asit i c act ion on the I C chip. t hi s t ransi st or acti on can cause t he output vol t ages of the Op- amps t o go t o the VCC volt age l evel (or to ground f or a l arge over dri ve) f or t he ti me dur at ion t han an input i s dr iven negati ve.

This i s not destr uct i ve and nor mal out put wi l l set up again f or i nput vol tage higher t han - 0.3V.

LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(48)

-55-35-15 5 25 45 65 85 105 125 AMBIENT TEMPERATURE ( C)

24 21 18 15

9 12

6 3 0

INPUT BIAS CURRENT ve rs us AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

IB (nA)

SUPPLY

CURRENT

(mA)

S UPPLY CURRENT

0 10 20 30

Ta mb = -55 C

VCC

mA ID

-+

Tamb = 0 C to +125 C

POS ITIVE S UPP LY VOLTAGE (V) 4

3

2

1

LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(49)

LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(50)

TYPICAL SINGLE - SUPPLY APPLICATIONS

1/4 LM124

~

0 2VPP

R 10kΩ L Co eo R 6.2kΩ B R 100kΩ f R1 10kΩ CI eI VCC R2 100kΩ C1 10µF

R3 100kΩ

A = - R R1

V

f

(as shown A = -10)_V

AC COUPLED INVERTING AMPLIFIER

1/4 LM124

~

0 2VP P

R 10kLΩ Co

eo

R 6.2kBΩ C1

0.1µF

eI

VCC

(a s s hown A = 11)_V A = 1 +R2

R1

V

R1

100kΩ 1MR2Ω

CI R3 1MΩ R4 100kΩ R5 100kΩ C2

10µF

AC COUPLED NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(51)

R1 10kΩ R2 1MΩ 1/4 LM124 10kΩ eI

eO +5V

eO

(V)

(mV) 0

AV= 1 +R2_R1

(As shownAV= 101)

NON-INVERTING DC GAIN

1/4 LM124 e_O e₄ e₃ e₂

e₁ 100kΩ

100kΩ

100kΩ 100kΩ

eo= e1+ e2- e3- e4

where (e1+ e2)≥ (e3+ e4)

to keep eo≥ 0V

DC SUMMING AMPLIFIER

TYPICAL SINGLE - SUPPLY APPLICATIONS

1/4 LM124 R3 100kΩ eO 1/4 LM124 R1 100kΩ e₁ 1/4 LM124 R7 100kΩ R6 100kΩ R5 100kΩ e2 R2 2kΩ Gain adjust R4 100kΩ

if R1= R5and R3= R4= R6= R7

eo=[ 1+

2R1

R2

](e2−e1)

As shown eo= 101 (e2- e1).

HIGH INPUT Z ADJUSTABLE GAIN DC INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER 1/4 LM124 1/4 LM124 IB

2N 929 0.001µF IB 3R 3MΩ IB Input current compensation eo I_B eI 1/4

LM124 Zo

ZI

C 1µF 2IB

R 1MΩ

2IB

* Polycarbonate or polyethylene *

LOW DRIFT PEAK DETECTOR LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(52)

1/4 LM124

I_B

2N 929

0.001µF

I_B

3MΩ

I_B

eo I I

eI

I_B

Aux. amplifier for input current compensation

1.5MΩ

USING SYMMETRICAL AMPLIFIERS TO REDUCE INPUT CURRENT (GENERAL CONCEPT)

LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(53)

1/4 LM124 1/4 LM124 R3 10kΩ 1/4 LM124 e1 e_O R8 100kΩ R7 100kΩ C3 10µF

VCC R5 470kΩ C2 330pF R4 10MΩ R6 470kΩ R1 100kΩ C1 330pF

FO= 1kHz

Q = 50

AV= 100 (40dB)

ACTIVER BANDPASS FILTER

1/4 LM124 1/4 LM124 R1 100kΩ R2 100kΩ R4 100kΩ R3 100kΩ +V2

+V1 Vo

eo(1+

R4

R3) (e2−e1)

As shown eo= (e2- e1)

ForR1 R2=

R4

R3

(CMRR depends on this resistor ratio match) HIGH INPUT Z, DC DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

TYPICAL SINGLE - SUPPLY APPLICATIONS

VOLTAGE GAIN AND PHASE vs FREQUENCY LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(54)

.

LARGE VOLTAGE GAIN : 100dB

.

VERY LOW SUPPLY CURRENT/AMPLI : 375µA

.

LOW INPUT BIAS CURRENT : 20nA

.

LOW INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE : 2mV

.

LOW INPUT OFFSET CURRENT : 2nA

.

WIDE POWER SUPPLY RANGE : SINGLE SUPPLY : +3V to +30V DUAL SUPPLIES :±1.5V to±15V

** Standard Linear Ics Macromodels, 1993. ** CONNECTIONS :

* 1 INVERTING INPUT * 2 NON-INVERTING INPUT * 3 OUTPUT

* 4 POSITIVE POWER SUPPLY * 5 NEGATIVE POWER SUPPLY

.SUBCKT LM124 1 3 2 4 5 (analog)

********************************************************** .MODEL MDTH D IS=1E-8 KF=3.104131E-15 CJO=10F

* INPUT STAGE CIP 2 5 1.000000E-12 CIN 1 5 1.000000E-12 EIP 10 5 2 5 1

EIN 16 5 1 5 1

RIP 10 11 2.600000E+01 RIN 15 16 2.600000E+01 RIS 11 15 2.003862E+02 DIP 11 12 MDTH 400E-12 DIN 15 14 MDTH 400E-12 VOFP 12 13 DC 0

VOFN 13 14 DC 0 IPOL 13 5 1.000000E-05 CPS 11 15 3.783376E-09 DINN 17 13 MDTH 400E-12 VIN 17 5 0.000000e+00

DINR 15 18 MDTH 400E-12 VIP 4 18 2.000000E+00 FCP 4 5 VOFP 3.400000E+01 FCN 5 4 VOFN 3.400000E+01 FIBP 2 5 VOFN 2.000000E-03 FIBN 5 1 VOFP 2.000000E-03 * AMPLIFYING STAGE FIP 5 19 VOFP 3.600000E+02 FIN 5 19 VOFN 3.600000E+02 RG1 19 5 3.652997E+06 RG2 19 4 3.652997E+06 CC 19 5 6.000000E-09 DOPM 19 22 MDTH 400E-12 DONM 21 19 MDTH 400E-12 HOPM 22 28 VOUT 7.500000E+03 VIPM 28 4 1.500000E+02

HONM 21 27 VOUT 7.500000E+03 VINM 5 27 1.500000E+02

EOUT 26 23 19 5 1 VOUT 23 5 0 ROUT 26 3 20

COUT 3 5 1.000000E-12 DOP 19 25 MDTH 400E-12 VOP 4 25 2.242230E+00 DON 24 19 MDTH 400E-12 VON 24 5 7.922301E-01 .ENDS

Applies to : LM124-LM224-LM324

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

VCC+ = +5V, VCC-= 0V, Tamb= 25oC (unless otherwise specified)

Symbol Conditions Value Unit

Vio 0 mV

Avd RL= 2kΩ 100 V/mV

ICC No load, per operator 350 µA

Vicm -15 to +13.5 V

VOH RL= 2kΩ(VCC+= 15V) +13.5 V

VOL RL = 10kΩ 5 mV

IOS VO= +2V, VCC= +15V +40 mA

GBP RL= 2kΩ, CL= 100pF 1.3 MHz

SR RL= 2kΩ, CL= 100pF 0.4 V/µs

LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(55)

PM-DIP14.EPS

PACKAGE MECHANICAL DATA

14 PINS - PL ASTIC DIP

Dimensions Millimeters Inches

Min. Typ. Max. Min. Typ. Max.

a1 0.51 0.020

B 1.39 1.65 0.055 0.065

b 0.5 0.020

b1 0.25 0.010

D 20 0.787

E 8.5 0.335

e 2.54 0.100

e3 15.24 0.600

F 7.1 0.280

i 5.1 0.201

L 3.3 0.130

Z 1.27 2.54 0.050 0.100 _DIP14.TBL

LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(56)

PM-SO14.EPS

PACKAGE MECHANICAL DATA

14 PINS - PL ASTIC MICROPACKAGE (SO)

Dimensions Millimeters Inches

A 1.75 0.069

a1 0.1 0.2 0.004 0.008

a2 1.6 0.063

b 0.35 0.46 0.014 0.018

b1 0.19 0.25 0.007 0.010

C 0.5 0.020

c1 45o(typ.)

D 8.55 8.75 0.336 0.334

E 5.8 6.2 0.228 0.244

e 1.27 0.050

e3 7.62 0.300

F 3.8 4.0 0.150 0.157

G 4.6 5.3 0.181 0.208

L 0.5 1.27 0.020 0.050

M 0.68 0.027

S 8o(max.) _SO14.TBL

LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(57)

Dim. Millimeters Inches

A 1.20 0.05

A1 0.05 0.15 0.01 0.006

A2 0.80 1.00 1.05 0.031 0.039 0.041

b 0.19 0.30 0.007 0.15

c 0.09 0.20 0.003 0.012

D 4.90 5.00 5.10 0.192 0.196 0.20

E 6.40 0.252

E1 4.30 4.40 4.50 0.169 0.173 0.177

e 0.65 0.025

k 0o 8o 0o 8o

l 0.50 0.60 0.75 0.09 0.0236 0.030

PACKAGE MECHANICAL DATA

14 PINS - THIN SHRINK SMALL OUTLINE PACKAGE

Information furnished is believed to be accurate and reliable. However, STMicroelectronics assumes no responsibility for the consequences of use of such information nor for any infringement of patents or other rights of third parties which may result from its use. No license is granted by implication or otherwise under any patent or patent rights of STMicroelectronics. Specifi-cations mentioned in this publication are subject to change without notice. This publication supersedes and replaces all infor-mation previously supplied. STMicroelectronics products are not authorized for use as critical components in life support devices or systems without express written approval of STMicroelectronics.

STMicroelectronics GROUP OF COMPANIES

Australia - Brazil - Canada - China - France - Germany - Italy - Japan - Korea - Malaysia - Malta - Mexico - Morocco The Netherlands - Singapore - Spain - Sweden - Switzerland - Taiwan - Thailand - United Kingdom - U.S.A.

http://www.st.com

LM124 - LM224 - LM324

(58)

This datasheet has been download from:

www.datasheetcatalog.com

(59)

L293D

L293DD

PUSH-PULL FOUR CHANNEL DRIVER WITH DIODES

600mA OUTPUT CURRENT CAPABILITY PER CHANNEL

1.2A PEAK OUTPUT CURRENT (non repeti-tive) PER CHANNEL

ENABLE FACILITY

OVERTEMPERATURE PROTECTION

LOGICAL ”0” INPUT VOLTAGE UP TO 1.5 V (HIGH NOISE IMMUNITY)

INTERNAL CLAMP DIODES

DESCRIPTION

The Device is a monolithic integrated high volt-age, high current four channel driver designed to accept standard DTL or TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads (such as relays solenoides, DC and stepping motors) and switching power tran-sistors.

To simplify use as two bridges each pair of chan-nels is equipped with an enable input. A separate supply input is provided for the logic, allowing op-eration at a lower voltage and internal clamp di-odes are included.

This device is suitable for use in switching appli-cations at frequencies up to 5 kHz.

The L293D is assembled in a 16 lead plastic packaage which has 4 center pins connected to-gether and used for heatsinking

The L293DD is assembled in a 20 lead surface mount which has 8 center pins connected to-gether and used for heatsinking.

June 1996

BLOCK DIAGRAM

SO(12+4+4) Powerdip (12+2+2) ORDERING NUMBERS:

L293DD L293D

(60)

ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS

Symbol Parameter Value Unit

VS Supply Voltage 36 V

VSS Logic Supply Voltage 36 V

Vi Input Voltage 7 V

Ven Enable Voltage 7 V

Io Peak Output Current (100µs non repetitive) 1.2 A

Ptot Total Power Dissipation at Tpins= 90°C 4 W

Tstg, Tj Storage and Junction Temperature – 40 to 150 °C

THERMAL DATA

Symbol Decription DIP SO Unit

Rth j-pins Thermal Resistance Junction-pins max. – 14 °C/W

Rth j-amb Thermal Resistance junction-ambient max. 80 50 (*) °C/W

Rth j-case Thermal Resistance Junction-case max. 14 – (*) With 6sq. cm on board heatsink.

PIN CONNECTIONS (Top view)

SO(12+4+4) Powerdip(12+2+2)

L293D - L293DD

(61)

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (for each channel, VS = 24 V, VSS= 5 V, Tamb = 25°C, unless otherwise specified)

Symbol Parameter Test Conditions Min. Typ. Max. Unit

VS Supply Voltage (pin 10) VSS 36 V

VSS Logic Supply Voltage (pin 20) 4.5 36 V

IS Total Quiescent Supply Current

(pin 10)

Vi= L ; IO= 0 ; Ven= H 2 6 mA

Vi= H ; IO= 0 ; Ven= H 16 24 mA

Ven= L 4 mA

ISS Total Quiescent Logic Supply

Current (pin 20)

Vi= L ; IO= 0 ; Ven= H 44 60 mA

Vi= H ; IO= 0 ; Ven= H 16 22 mA

Ven= L 16 24 mA

VIL Input Low Voltage (pin 2, 9, 12,

19)

– 0.3 1.5 V

VIH Input High Voltage (pin 2, 9,

12, 19)

VSS≤7 V 2.3 VSS V

VSS> 7 V 2.3 7 V

IIL Low Voltage Input Current (pin

2, 9, 12, 19)

VIL= 1.5 V – 10 µA

IIH High Voltage Input Current (pin

2, 9, 12, 19)

2.3 V≤VIH≤VSS– 0.6 V 30 100 µA

Ven L Enable Low Voltage

(pin 1, 11)

– 0.3 1.5 V

Ven H Enable High Voltage

(pin 1, 11)

VSS≤7 V 2.3 VSS V

VSS> 7 V 2.3 7 V

Ien L Low Voltage Enable Current

(pin 1, 11)

Ven L= 1.5 V – 30 – 100 µA

Ien H High Voltage Enable Current

(pin 1, 11)

2.3 V≤Ven H≤VSS– 0.6 V ±10 µA

VCE(sat)H Source Output Saturation

Voltage (pins 3, 8, 13, 18)

IO= – 0.6 A 1.4 1.8 V

VCE(sat)L Sink Output Saturation Voltage

(pins 3, 8, 13, 18)

IO= + 0.6 A 1.2 1.8 V

VF Clamp Diode Forward Voltage IO= 600nA 1.3 V

tr Rise Time (*) 0.1 to 0.9 VO 250 ns

tf Fall Time (*) 0.9 to 0.1 VO 250 ns

ton Turn-on Delay (*) 0.5 Vito 0.5 VO 750 ns

toff Turn-off Delay (*) 0.5 Vito 0.5 VO 200 ns (*) See fig. 1.

L293D - L293DD

(62)

TRUTH TABLE (one channel)

Inpu t Enable (*) Output

H L H L

H H L L

H L Z Z

Z = High output impedance

[image:62.595.71.531.95.263.2]

(*) Relative to the considered channel

Figure 1: Switching Times

Figure 2: Junction to ambient thermal resistance vs. area on board heatsink (SO12+4+4 package)

L293D - L293DD

[image:62.595.68.529.296.508.2]

(63)

POWERDIP16 PACKAGE MECHANICAL DATA

DIM. mm inch

MIN. TYP. MAX. MIN. TYP. MAX.

a1 0.51 0.020

B 0.85 1.40 0.033 0.055

b 0.50 0.020

b1 0.38 0.50 0.015 0.020

D 20.0 0.787

E 8.80 0.346

e 2.54 0.100

e3 17.78 0.700

F 7.10 0.280

I 5.10 0.201

L 3.30 0.130

Z 1.27 0.050

L293D - L293DD

(64)

SO20 PACKAGE MECHANICAL DATA

DIM. mm inch

MIN. TYP. MAX. MIN. TYP. MAX.

A 2.65 0.104

a1 0.1 0.2 0.004 0.008

a2 2.45 0.096

b 0.35 0.49 0.014 0.019

b1 0.23 0.32 0.009 0.013

C 0.5 0.020

c1 45 1.772

D 1 12.6 0.039 0.496

E 10 10.65 0.394 0.419

e 1.27 0.050

e3 11.43 0.450

F 1 7.4 0.039 0.291

G 8.8 9.15 0.346 0.360

L 0.5 1.27 0.020 0.050

M 0.75 0.030

S 8°(max.)

L293D - L293DD

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Information furnished is believed to be accurate and reliable. However, SGS-THOMSON Microelectronics assumes no responsibility for the consequences of use of such information nor for any infringement of patents or other rights of third parties which may result from its use. No license is granted by implication or otherwise under any patent or patent rights of SGS-THOMSON Microelectronics. Specification mentioned in this publication are subject to change without notice. This publication supersedes and replaces all information previously supplied. SGS-THOMSON Microelectronics products are not authorized for use as criticalcomponents in life support devices or systems without express written approval of SGS-THOMSON Microelectronics.

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L293D - L293DD

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This datasheet has been download from:

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DATA SHEET

Product specification

Supersedes data of September 1994

File under Discrete Semiconductors, SC04

1997 Mar 27

DISCRETE SEMICONDUCTORS

BC556; BC557; BC558

PNP general purpose transistors

book, halfpage

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1997 Mar 27 2

Philips Semiconductors Product specification

PNP general purpose transistors

BC556; BC557; BC558

FEATURES

• Low current (max. 100 mA)

• Low voltage (max. 65 V).

APPLICATIONS

• General purpose switching and amplification.

DESCRIPTION

PNP transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package. NPN complements: BC546, BC547 and BC548.

PINNING

PIN DESCRIPTION

1 emitter

2 base

3 collector

Fig.1 Simplified outline (TO-92; SOT54)

and symbol. handbook, halfpage1

3 2

MAM281

3

2

1

QUICK REFERENCE DATA

SYMBOL PARAMETER CONDITIONS MIN. MAX. UNIT

VCBO collector-base voltage open emitter

BC556 − −80 V

BC557 − −50 V

BC558 − −30 V

VCEO collector-emitter voltage open base

BC556 − −65 V

BC557 − −45 V

BC558 − −30 V

ICM peak collector current − −200 mA

Ptot total power dissipation Tamb≤25°C − 500 mW

hFE DC current gain IC=−2 mA; VCE=−5 V

BC556 125 475

BC557; BC558 125 800

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1997 Mar 27 3

Philips Semiconductors Product specification

PNP general purpose transistors

BC556; BC557; BC558

LIMITING VALUES

In accordance with the Absolute Maximum Rating System (IEC 134).

THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS

Note

1. Transistor mounted on an FR4 printed-circuit board.

SYMBOL PARAMETER CONDITIONS MIN. MAX. UNIT

VCBO collector-base voltage open emitter

BC556 − −80 V

BC557 − −50 V

BC558 − −30 V

V_CEO collector-emitter voltage open base

BC556 − −65 V

BC557 − −45 V

BC558 − −30 V

VEBO emitter-base voltage open collector − −5 V

IC collector current (DC) − −100 mA

ICM peak collector current − −200 mA

IBM peak base current − −200 mA

P_tot total power dissipation T_amb≤25°C − 500 mW

Tstg storage temperature −65 +150 °C

Tj junction temperature − 150 °C

Tamb operating ambient temperature −65 +150 °C

SYMBOL PARAMETER CONDITIONS VALUE UNIT

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1997 Mar 27 4

BC556; BC557; BC558

CHARACTERISTICS

Tj= 25°C unless otherwise specified.

Notes

1. VBEsat decreases by about−1.7 mV/K with increasing temperature.

2. VBE decreases by about−2 mV/K with increasing temperature.

SYMBOL PARAMETER CONDITIONS MIN. TYP. MAX. UNIT

ICBO collector cut-off current IE= 0; VCB=−30 V − −1 −15 nA

I_E= 0; V_CB=−30 V; T_j= 150°C − − −4 µA

IEBO emitter cut-off current IC= 0; VEB=−5 V − − −100 nA

hFE DC current gain IC=−2 mA; VCE=−5 V;

see Figs 2, 3 and 4

BC556 125 − 475

BC557; BC558 125 − 800

BC556A; BC557A; BC558A 125 − 250

BC556B; BC557B; BC558B 220 − 475

BC557C; BC558C 420 − 800

V_CEsat collector-emitter saturation voltage I_C=−10 mA; I_B=−0.5 mA − −60 −300 mV

IC=−100 mA; IB=−5 mA − −180 −650 mV

VBEsat base-emitter saturation voltage IC=−10 mA; IB=−0.5 mA; note 1 − −750 − mV

IC=−100 mA; IB=−5 mA; note 1 − −930 − mV

VBE base-emitter voltage IC=−2 mA; VCE=−5 V; note 2 −600 −650 −750 mV

IC=−10 mA; VCE=−5 V; note 2 − − −820 mV

Cc collector capacitance IE= ie= 0; VCB=−10 V; f = 1 MHz − 3 − pF

Ce emitter capacitance IC= ic= 0; VEB=−0.5 V; f = 1 MHz − 10 − pF

f_T transition frequency I_C=−10 mA; V_CE=−5 V; f = 100 MHz 100 − − MHz

F noise figure IC=−200µA; VCE=−5 V; RS= 2 kΩ;

f = 1 kHz; B = 200 Hz

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1997 Mar 27 5

PNP general purpose transistors

BC556; BC557; BC558

Fig.2 DC current gain; typical values. handbook, full pagewidth

0 300

100 200

MBH726

10−1

hFE

1 10 ₁₀2 _{IC (mA)} 103

VCE = 5 V

BC556A; BC557A; BC558A.

0 300

200

100

400 MBH727

10−2 ₁₀−1

hFE

1 10 ₁₀2 _{IC (mA)} 103

VCE = 5 V

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1997 Mar 27 6

BC556; BC557; BC558

0 300

200

100 600

500

400

MBH728

10−2 ₁₀−1

hFE

1 10 ₁₀2 _{IC (mA)} 103

VCE = 5 V

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1997 Mar 27 7

PNP general purpose transistors

BC556; BC557; BC558

PACKAGE OUTLINE UNIT A REFERENCES OUTLINE VERSION EUROPEAN

PROJECTION ISSUE DATE IEC JEDEC EIAJ

mm 5.2 5.0 b 0.48 0.40 c 0.45 0.40 D 4.8 4.4 d 1.7 1.4 E 4.2 3.6 L 14.5 12.7 e 2.54 e1 1.27 L1(1) 2.5 b1 0.66 0.56

DIMENSIONS (mm are the original dimensions)

Note

1. Terminal dimensions within this zone are uncontrolled to allow for flow of plastic and terminal irregularities.

SOT54 TO-92 SC-43 97-02-28

A L

0 2.5 5 mm

scale b c D b1 L1 d E

Plastic single-ended leaded (through hole) package; 3 leads SOT54

e1 e

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1997 Mar 27 8

PNP general purpose transistors

BC556; BC557; BC558

DEFINITIONS

LIFE SUPPORT APPLICATIONS

These products are not designed for use in life support appliances, devices, or systems where malfunction of these products can reasonably be expected to result in personal injury. Philips customers using or selling these products for use in such applications do so at their own risk and agree to fully indemnify Philips for any damages resulting from such improper use or sale.

Data sheet status

Objective specification This data sheet contains target or goal specifications for product development.

Preliminary specification This data sheet contains preliminary data; supplementary data may be published later.

Product specification This data sheet contains final product specifications.

Limiting values

Limiting values given are in accordance with the Absolute Maximum Rating System (IEC 134). Stress above one or more of the limiting values may cause permanent damage to the device. These are stress ratings only and operation of the device at these or at any other conditions above those given in the Characteristics sections of the specification is not implied. Exposure to limiting values for extended periods may affect device reliability.

Application information

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1997 Mar 27 9

PNP general purpose transistors

BC556; BC557; BC558

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1997 Mar 27 10

BC556; BC557; BC558

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1997 Mar 27 11

BC556; BC557; BC558

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BAB I

PENDAHULUAN

I.1. Latar Belakang

Saat ini teknologi robot berkembang dengan cepat. Robot dapat digunakan untuk: 1) membantu meringankan pekerjaan manusia, terutama jenis pekerjaan yang membutuhkan ketelitian serta daya tahan dalam jangka waktu yang lama, 2) menggantikan manusia melakukan pekerjaan yang memiliki resiko atau bahaya yang besar dan 3) menjangkau daerah-daerah tertentu yang tidak dapat dijelajahi oleh manusia. Penggunaan robot tersebut banyak ditemui di dalam berbagai bidang seperti: bidang kedokteran, bidang industri, eksplorasi ruang angkasa dan lain sebagainya, baik dalam bentuk penelitian ataupun proses produksi.

Salah satu jenis robot yang banyak dipakai di dalam bidang industri adalah robot yang dapat mengikuti lintasan garis tertentu (line follower

robot). Robot jenis ini pada umumnya berbentuk kendaraan seperti: mobil.

Robot ini menggunakan sensor photo-reflector atau sensor image untuk mendeteksi lintasan yang harus diikuti dan motor sebagai komponen penggeraknya. Untuk mengendalikan pergerakkan robot tipe ini dapat menggunakan beberapa metoda kendali seperti metoda PID, logika fuzzy, jaringan saraf tiruan dan lain-lain. Beberapa contoh aplikasi robot jenis ini yaitu: 1) trayek angkutan dalam skala kecil, misal di rumah sakit sehingga pasien tidak perlu berjalan untuk sampai ke tempat yang dituju, 2) untuk sistem pengantaran barang dari satu bagian produksi ke bagian produksi yang lain, 3) dapat digunakan sebagai media reklame iklan berjalan di mal-mal atau pusat perbelanjaan.

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Bab I - Pendahuluan 2

I.2. Identifikasi Masalah

Identifikasi masalah yang dilakukan adalah bagaimana merancang dan merealisasikan kendaraan yang mengikuti suatu lintasan tertentu dengan pengendali logika fuzzy?

I.3. Tujuan

Sesuai dengan judul tugas akhir ini, penulis bertujuan untuk merancang serta merealisasikan kendaraan yang mengikuti suatu lintasan tertentu dengan pengendali logika fuzzy.

I.4. Spesifikasi Alat

1. Mikrokontroler yang digunakan adalah tipe ATMega16 dari keluarga AVR Atmel.

2. Sensor inframerah yang digunakan untuk mendeteksi lintasan yang harus diikuti adalah sensor optocoupler tipe GP2S28 sebanyak enam buah.

3. Motor DC 12 volt sebanyak dua buah.

4. Menggunakan IC driver L293D untuk men-drive motor dc 12 volt.

5. Roda yang dipakai sebanyak empat buah, dengan komposisi dua buah roda bergerak dan dua roda statis.

I.5. Pembatasan Masalah

Untuk lebih mengarahkan pembahasan, maka tugas akhir ini dilaksanakan dalam batas-batas sebagai berikut:

1. Robot ini merupakan jenis rover yang bergerak maju mengikuti bentuk dari lintasan tertutup.

2. Jalur yang ditempuh rata, tidak ada rintangan serta halangan seperti tanjakan, lubang, benda dan lain-lain.

3. Warna bidang alas yang dipakai adalah warna putih dan garis lintasan yang dipakai warna hitam.

4. Robot ini menggunakan penjejakan sensor inframerah.

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Bab I - Pendahuluan 3 5. Kecepatan putar dari motor dc kiri dan kanan diabaikan.

Karena yang diperhatikan adalah lamanya motor dc bekerja yang diatur dengan metoda PWM (Pulse Width Modulation). 6. Mekanisme pergerakan robot untuk berbelok kiri dan kanan

diatur dengan mengendalikan kecepatan putar dari roda kiri dan roda kanan.

I.6. Sistematika Penulisan

Laporan Tugas Akhir ini terdiri atas 5 bab dengan sistematika penulisan sebagai berikut :

Bab I Pendahuluan

Pada bab ini dipaparkan mengenai latar belakang masalah, identifikasi masalah, tujuan penulisan, spesifikasi alat, pembatasan masalah, dan sistematika penulisan laporan.

Bab II Landasan Teori

Pada bab ini dibahas mengenai teori dasar dari robot, sensor

inframerah, logika fuzzy dan mikrokontroler AVR ATMega16.

Bab III Perancangan Dan Realisasi Perangkat Keras Dan Lunak

Pada bab ini dipaparkan mengenai perancangan dan realisasi, baik perangkat keras dan perangkat lunak dari kendaraan yang mengikuti suatu lintasan tertentu. Perangkat lunak yang dibahas dibagi dua, yang pertama dalam bahasa asember untuk mikrokontroler dan yang kedua perancangan logika fuzzy yang digunakan dengan menggunakan software petrafuz.

Bab IV Data Pengamatan Kendaraan Yang Mengikuti Suatu Lintasan Tertentu

Pada bab ini dibahas mengenai hasil data pengamatan yang didapat dari percobaan. Data pengamatan yang didapat dibagi menjadi beberapa bagian: yang pertama data pembacaan

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Bab I - Pendahuluan 4 sensor kendaraan terhadap bidang dan garis lintasan dengan satu, tiga dan enam sensor menyala semua. Yang kedua data

input dan output hasil simulasi logika fuzzy dengan software

petrafuz dan yang ketiga data pengamatan gerak kendaraan dalam mengikuti garis lintasan.

Bab V Kesimpulan Dan Saran

Pada bab ini dipaparkan kesimpulan yang diambil berdasarkan data pengamatan hasil gerak kendaraan dan simulasi logika

fuzzy serta saran-saran untuk pengembangan lebih lanjut.

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BAB V

KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN

Kesimpulan

1) Realisasi kendaraan yang mengikuti suatu lintasan berwarna hitam pada bidang dasar berwarna putih, secara hardware menggunakan mikrokontroler ATMega16 berhasil dibuat.

Saran

Ada beberapa saran yang dapat dilakukan untuk memperbaiki atau meningkatkan kerja sistem kendaraan yang mengikuti suatu lintasan tertentu, yaitu:

1) Hasil realisasi software dalam TA ini belum da