CHAPTER II
REVIEW LITERATURE
2.1 Text and Social Context
In terms of utterances, “text” is the linguistic content: the stable
semantic meanings of words, expressions, and sentences, but not the
inferences available to hearers depending upon the contexts in which words,
expressions, and sentences are used. So in other words, context is always
being together with text. Text in use can be written or spoken. When it is
written text, it is signaled by punctuations; however, spoken text involves a
number of speakers whom takes turn everything that said or written form in
context is referred to as social context. Social context consists of :
a. Context of Situation (Register)
b. Context of Culture (Genre)
c. Ideology
2.1.1 Context of Situation (Register)
Context of situation or register refers to a variety of language
that varies according to the using of language in different situations.
Halliday and Hasan (1975) identifying three variables, or contextual
dimensions that impact on language use: field, tenor and mode.
Register is important in systemic linguistics because it is seen as the
anthropologist, Branislaw Malinowski claimed that language only
Malinowski was making an important association, between the fact
that language only makes sense (only has meaning) when interpreted
within its context and the claim that language is a functional resource
(i.e. language use is purposeful) : thought or feeling actual at that moment and in that situation, and necessary for some reason or other to be made known to another person or persons – in order either to serve purposes of common action, or to establish ties of purely social
Malinowski thus considered that, at least in primitive cultures,
language was always being used to do something. Language
One scholar who developed a more general theory of
meaning-in-context, influenced by Malinowski’s work, was the linguist J.R.
Firth (1935, 1950, 1951). With a life-long interested in the semantics
of language, Firth extended the notion of context of situation to the
more general issue of linguistic predictability. Firth pointed out that
given a description of a context can be predicted what language will
be used. Predictability also works in the other direction : given an
example of language use (text), it can made prediction about what was
going on at the time that it was produced.
In trying to determine what were the significant variables in
the context of situation that can make such predictions, Firth
suggested the following dimensions of situations :
A. The relevant features of participants : persons, personaloties.
(i) The verbal action of the participants.
(ii) The non-verbal action of the participants.
B. The relevant objects.
C. The effect of the verbal action. (Firth, 1950/57 : 182)
Following in the functional-semantic tradition pursued by
Firth, Halliday (1978: 10) points out, “the context of situation is a
theoretical construct for explaining how a text relates to the social
processes within which it is located”, and consists of three
components: the main social activity taking place, the people involved
in it (plus the way they relate to one another), and the roles and
technically in systemic functional linguistics as ‘field’, tenor and
mode.
2.1.1.1 Field
Field can be described as the social action : “what is actually
taking place” and it refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social
action that is taking place : what (activity/topic) is it that the participants
are engaged in, in which the language figures as some essential
component” (Halliday & Hasan, 1985 :12).
Martin (1986) defines field as “a set of activity sequences oriented
to some global institutional purpose”, and he includes taxonomies,
configurations and activity sequences in the discussion of field of
discourse. The discussion of field, according to Martin (1992 : 292), can
be divided into the following :
(1)Taxonomies of actions, people, places, things and qualities,
(2)Configurations of actions with people, places, things and qualities and
of people, places and things with qualities; and
(3)Activity sequences of these configuratioins.
Following the Systemic Functional Theory’s hypothesis that the
intrinsic functional organisation of language closely interacts with and
corresponds to the extrinsic functional organisation of social context. It is
argued that field is closely related to the ideational metafunction, tenor to
the interpersonal metafunction and mode to the textual metafunction
(Halliday, 1978 : 143, Martin, 1993 : 145-146). With this argument, an
and logico-semantic aspects within the transitivity and clause complexity
system representation analysis.
2.1.1.2 Mode
Mode can be described as the symbolic organization : “what role
language is playing “ and it refers to what part language is playing, what
is it that the participants are expecting the language to do for them in the
situation : the symbolic organization of the text, the status that the text
has, and its function in the context, including the channel (is it spoken or
written or some combination of the two). (Halliday and Hasan, 1985 : 12).
Mode is the kind of role that language is playing in a text-creating
social interaction. Hasan specifies mode of discourse-in-text into two
dimensions : (1) channel, and (2) medium (Halliday and Hassan, 1985 :
12). The notion of channel relates to the question of whether the text
comes to the participants through their eyesor whether the text comes to
the participants through their ears, finger tips or other body parts or
senses. In the first case, it is visual; in the second case, it is non-visual. On
the other hand, the notion of medium relates to the question of whether
the text comes to the participants when the text is still being processed or
created (not yet finished, still a process), or whether the text comes to the
participants when the text has already been processed or created (already
finished, already a finished product). In the first case, it is spoken; in the
second case, it is written.
Martin states that mode can be interpreted in terms of distance
spatial/interpersonal distance. The distance between speaker and listener
is known as feedback which can be further divided into immediate
feedback and delayed feedback (Martin, 1984 : 26).
A spatial/interpersonal distance mode of the immediate feedback
type maybe represented by an active casual conversation or an active
conversing lecture, whereas a spatial/interpersonal distance mode of the
delayed feedback type maybe represented by a one-way communication
such as that of a radion mode. On the other hand, an experiential distance
maybe represented by a distance between language and the social process
occuring (Eggins, 1994 : 54).
With reference to lecture discourse mode, it can be characterised
that immediate feedback is the active conversing lecture while the
delayed feedback is apt for monologuing lecture. Referring to the
experiential distance, for example, in the conversing lecture language is
used for asking questions, for checking, explaining and giving tasks so the
patterns flow. In such a situation, it is the language as action but where
the mode is not spontaneous and monologic, the language is used as
reflection.
2.1.1.3 Tenor
Tenor can be described as the role structure : who is taking part
and it refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their
statues and roles : what kinds of role relationship obtain among the
participants, including permanent and temporary relationships of one
the dialogue and the whole cluster of socially significant relationships in
which they are involved.. (This notion includes what Halliday (1978 : 33)
refers to as the “degree of emotional charge” in the relationship).
Building on pioneering studies of language variation and role
relationship variables such as formality, politeness, and reciprocity
(Brown and Gilman in Eggins, 1994 : 100). Poynton in Eggins (1994 :
100) has suggested that tenor can be broken down into three different
continua.
a. Power (status), which positions situations in terms of whether the
roles we are playing are those in which we are of equal or unequal
power. Power (status) influenced by wealth, ethnicity, social position,
age, geographical origin, knowledge, and physical appearance. Examples
of roles of equal power are those of friends; examples of roles unequal
(non-reciprocal) power would be those of boss/employee.
A : Shandy, could you bring those books to the office?
B : Yes, I could sir
b. Contact, which positions situations in terms of whether the roles we
are playing are those that bring us into frequent or infrequent contact. For
example, contrast the frequent contact between spouses, with the
occasional contact with distant acquaintances.
A : Do you like him?
B : Yes.
c. Affective involvement, in which situations can be positioned
according to whether the roles we are playing are those in which the
to the extent to which we are emotionally involved or committed in a
situation. For example, friends or lovers are obviously affective
involvement, whereas work associates are typically not?
Affect deals with the positive or negative feelings of the author.
The feelings can be expressed directly or implied. Direct expression of
feelings can be done by the exploiting attitudinal lexes the words
showing specific emotions feeling can also be indirectly expressed by
describing the behaviour that indicate the state of the feelings. Negative
feeling of being worried, for example can be shown by describing how
the participants recklessly wander from one point of space to another.
(Eggins, 1994 : 63-64)
A : Darl, can you wake me up at 6 o’clock tomorrow morning?
B : ok babe.
Poynton’s study of vocatives in Australian English has suggested
that there are correlations between the dimensions of power, contact and
affect and the choice of vocatives. It appears that :
a. When power is equal, vocative use is reciprocal : if I call you by your
first name, you will call me by my first name. Or if I use title plus
surname, so will you.
b. Where power is unequal, vocative use will be non-reciprocal : you
may call your doctor ‘Dr. Bloggs’, but he may call you ‘Peter’.
c. Where contact is frequent, we often use nicknames : Johnno, Pete,
Shirl, etc.
d. Where contact is infrequent, we often have no vocatives at all (e.g. the
e. Where affective involvement is high, we use diminutive forms of
names and terms of endearment : Georgie-Porgie, Darl, Honey, Bro.
f. Where affective involvement is low, we use formal ‘given’ names :
Peter, Suzanne, Anne.
Aside from vocatives, there are many other significant ways in
which these dimensions of tenor impact on language use. For example, in
casual conversations (where you are talking not to achieve any clear
pragmatic purpose but are just cheating), it can be seen a clear correlation
between the tenor variables and both the length and the type of
interraction :
a. Where both affective involvement and contact are low (e.g.
conversation with neighbour), conversations tend to be fairly brief;
whereas with high affective involvement and frequent contact (e.g.
with friends), conversations can go on for hours.
b. In addition, where affective involvement and contact are low, the
conversation will emphasize consensus and agreement; whereas
where contact and affect are high, the conversation is likely to be
characterized by controversy and disagreement (Eggins 1994 : 102).
One of realizations of the tenor of the situation can be seen in the
2.1.1.3Context of Culture (Genre)
Context of culture is termed as genre. According to Martin, genre
is a term that is defined to capture the notion of context of culture, which
stands as one of the semiotic systems outside language, which is not
intrinsically part of his register plane but one level above it. In this
respect the relation between genre, register and language is one of
realization : genre is realized by register and language, register is realized
by language.
A genre is realized and characterized by a structure characteristic
of its own and Martin (1984) refers to that structure in question as
schematic structure, which is roughly equivalent to Halliday’s generic
structure. A schematic structure of genre represents as overall
organizational pattern of the genre-in-text. When speakers/listeners as
members of a certain culture use a language, they interact socially and
become the procedures of a genre of aparticular kins, and this genre is the
speakers/listeners’ product characteristic of the given culture. That is, the
speakers/listeners’ genre has certain distinctive properties or features of
its own. Genres is classified into many different types as there are
recognizable social activity types in our culture. They are :
a. literary genres : short stories, autobiographies, ballads, sonnets, etc.
b. Popular fiction genres : romantic novels, sitcoms
c. Popular non-fiction genres : profiles, revioews, recipes, etc.
d. Educational genres : tutorials, report/essay writing. Lectures, etc.
2.1.3 Ideology
Ideology is "basic systems of fundamental social cognitions and
organising the attitudes and other social representations shared by members
of groups" (van Dijk in Eggins, 1994). Ideology is rooted in the practices of
its society. Ideology is a semiotics; therefore decision can be best understood
by applying semiotic procedures. All perception involves theory or ideology
and there are no “raw”, uninterrupted or theory free facts. A social construct
that says ideally what one should or should not do as a member of the
community.
Ideology functions as a guide to act (potentially) and a filter to react
(defend). Community in forms of race or ethnicity, age, sex/gender and
aspirations applies ideology and consequently perception of the world varies.
The perception is realized in varies modes; one of which is language and
hence is realized in linguistic varieties. Ideology determines culture, which in
turn rules out elements of context of situation.
2.2 Public Speaking
2.2.1 The Definition of Public Speaking
Public speaking is powerful communication tool by which people can
share or sell their ideas to others. Because it is a form of human
communication that calls for a variety of thinking, language, and behavioral
skills, it is often considered the mark of a successful person (Linda and Dick
2.2.2 The Elements of Public Speaking
Every communicative event, even those involving the same person, is
unique, because people and situations change with time. In spite of this, there
are common elements in each communicative situation. Public speaking
shares seven elements with other forms of human communication : sender,
message, media or channel(s), receiver(s), feedback, barrier(s) or interference
and communication situation (Linda and Dick Heun, 1986).
The sender or speaker is the person who sends the message. The
message is developed by the sender and represents the meanings the sender
chooses to share with the receiver. Messages consist of verbal and nonverbal
symbols. verbal symbols are words that represent the meanings intended;
nonverbal symbols are means other than words, such as facial expressions,
body movements, and vocal stress, that are used to represent meanings. The
channel is the means by which the message is sent. A speech can reach the
listeners by using media varieties : radio, television, public-address system or
direct voice communication.
The receiver is the person receiving the sender’s message. The
messages are received through five human senses. For example, a television
advertisement is received through the eyes(sight) and ears(sound). Feedback
is the response message(s) sent by the receiver to the sender during or after
the message has been received and understood. Feedback can consists of
Barrier(s) or interference include three factors :
a) External interference, appears from outside of the listener such as
baby’s crying, someone’s cough, someone speak loudly outside the
room of the speaking, etc.
b) Internal interference, appears from the listener maybe have an
emotional feeling with his/her problem, maybe the listener tired or
something else.
c) Speaker-generated interference, often appears when the sender uses
difficult, not familiar or unknown words to the listeners. The
speaker-generated interference may also happened when the speaker wears
bizarre clothing, some of the listeners maybe just look at the clothes
of the speaker than concentrate to the speech itself.
And the last element is communication situation. The communication
situation includes both the physical aspects of the speecsetting itself (place,
time and layout of room and objects) and the relationship between the speaker
and listener (roles and attitudes).
These seven elements function on three levels of human
communication- intrapersonal, interpersonal and public communication.
Intrapersonal communication refers to the communication that the speakers
have with themselves. Interpersonal communication refers to communication
the speakers have with one person or a group of people in which the roles of
sender and receiver change often. And public communication refers to the
communication of a continuous message by one person to call up a response
Public speaking differs from the other levels in two ways: (1) in public
speaking, the message is called a speech and is a continuous oral statement
from the speaker. (2) In public speaking, the audience’s attention on the
speaker.
Public speaking involeves speaker and audience choice making that is
speakers choose appropriate speech content to achieve their speech purpose
and audience make choices depending on their listening goals.
2.2.3 The Purposes of Public Speaking
Public speaking can be classified in terms of the desired audience
response :
a.` Informative speaking
Informative speaking is one of which the speaker’s general purpose is
make the audience understand something new or gain a new
perspective on something audience members already know.
b. Persuasive speaking
Persuasive speaking is one of which the speaker’s general purpose is
to influence and make the audiences believes of what the spaeker
saying.
c. Entertaining speaking
With entertaining speaking, the apeaker’s purpose is to make the
2.2.4 Making Effective Speaking
In making effective speaking, it is depend on how well the speaker is
able to put the ideas into words. Thus, there are several guidelines for using
language effectively in public speaking. First, be accurate in both vocabulary
and grammar. Further, use language that is appropriating to the audience, the
occasion and the the speaker itself. Define jargon in an effort to be clear.
Select concrete words that will allow the listeners to form more precise
meanings. Finally, choose words that are interestung, and consider using
alliteration, rhyme, repetition, personification, metaphors, similes that draw
