72. Schudson, Advertising, the Uneasy Persuasion, 159.
73. Ibid.
74. Indeed, my questions are/were also Durkheim’s questions. That is, one of the reasons he wrote Formswas to try and discern how it is that soci- ety sustains itself.
75. Poggi, Durkheim, 167.
in human reason and progress. The problem was that manipulative advertisers distorted this critique of bourgeois culture beyond recogni- tion. Emphasizing human irrationality, they used that emphasis to limit rather than deepen understanding of the human condition—to reject human freedom, rather than acknowledging its precariousness. Instead of transcending bourgeois culture, manipulative advertisers (like early therapists) helped to revitalize and transform it, creating new modes of hegemony for new managerial elites in the coming era of corporate cap- italism.
9. Jhally, “Advertising and the End of the World.”
10. Lears, “From Salvation to Self-Realization,” 6.
11. Ibid.
12. As Ewen and Ewen note, “to consume in its original usage (French), meant ‘to take up completely, devour, waste, spend.’ ” In almost all of the original English usages, consume had a negative connotation. With the expansion of an international market, to consume took on a more neutral, and then increasingly positive, tone. Today, “most Americans refer to themselves (unconsciously) as consumers.” See Stuart and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992), 31.
13. Leach, Land of Desire, xv.
14. Lears, Fables of Abundance, 138.
15. Ibid., 117.
16. Ibid., 10.
17. Ibid., 117.
18. Ibid., 120.
19. One would not want to suggest or assert a notion of an innocent America, a country devoid of class, race, and gender oppression. Of course, any country that is founded on free land, free labor, and free capital will be marked by an imperialist, if not an oppressive, ideology.
What was represented by early advertising was this kind of mythic abundance and simplicity as it was juxtaposed with the urbanization of the city. As more people moved from rural farm areas into industrial areas for job opportunities, many felt detached from the land as they crowded into burgeoning urban areas, and experienced “the anonymity of the city.” See Lears, “From Salvation to Self-Realization,” 6. Also, see Leach’s ideas of nonconsensual consumerism above.
20. Leiss et al., Social Communication in Advertising, 57.
21. Stuart Ewen, All Consuming Images: The Politics of Style in Contemporary Culture, rev. ed. (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 71.
22. Ewen and Ewen, Channels of Desire, 29.
Notes to Pages 54-57 163
23. Lears, “From Salvation to Self-Realization,” 10.
24. Ibid., 4.
25. Lears, Fables of Abundance, 139.
26. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 50.
27. Ibid., 55.
28. Ibid., 53.
29. Lears, Fables of Abundance, 209.
30. Lears, “From Salvation to Self-Realization,” 23.
31. Ibid., 30.
32. Leach, Land of Desire, 147.
33. Ibid., 146.
34. Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in An Age of Diminishing Expectations(New York: Norton, 1979), passim.
35. Ibid., 72.
36. Jerry Kirkpatrick argues against the critics who attack advertising as an infringement on the human consciousness. He states, “This attack denies the volitional nature of reason, that is free will; consequently, it denies either explicitly or implicitly, the validity of human conscious- ness as such.” Kirkpatrick, In Defense of Advertising, 3.
37. Gary Cross, An All-Consuming Century: Why Commercialism Won in Modern America(New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 29.
38. Joseph Haroutunian, Lust for Power(New York: Scribner’s Sons, 1949), 55–60.
39. Lears, Fables of Abundance, 154.
40. Ibid.
41. As quoted in Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 51.
42. Reason-why copywriters were John E. Kennedy, Claude Hopkins, Albert Lasker, and Helen Resor. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 107.
43. Lears, “From Salvation to Self-Realization,” 18.
44. Impressionistic advertising copywriters were J. Walter Thompson Agency, Theodore MacManus, and Raymond Rubicam. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 113.
45. Ibid. Sivulka also tells us that the two schools of advertising theory existed at the same time together for a short while. Usually, the object that was being advertised dictated the kind of copy. See also 115.
46. Cross asserts, “And most of the time, the goods that asserted status also had nonsocial meaning and appeals—control over nature, freedom from the past, or simply individual pleasure in feel, taste, and comfort.
The secret success of consumerism was that these messages to self and others were so layered, complex, and hidden.” Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 22.
47. Ibid., 21.
48. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 335.
49. Ibid., 348.
50. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 148.
51. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 264.
52. Ibid., 166.
53. Williamson, Decoding Advertisements, 47.
54. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 167.
55. Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 22.
56. Ibid., 3.
57. Ibid., 35.
58. “Printers’ Ink,” November 7, 1929, as quoted in Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 150.
59. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 169.
60. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 170.
61. Ibid., 171–172.
62. Ibid., 151.
63. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 187.
64. Ibid., 188. Italics added.
65. Ibid., 264. Italics in original.
66. “Printers’ Ink Monthly” March, 1926 as quoted in Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 265.
67. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 264–265.
68. Ibid., 265.
69. Ibid., 267.
70. Ibid., 269.
71. Ibid., 274. For an outstanding study of the intersection between adver- tising and American (religious) holidays, see Leigh Eric Schmidt, Consumer Rites: The Buying and Selling of American Holidays(Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1995).
72. Ibid., Advertising the American Dream, 276.
73. Ibid., 273.
74. Ibid. Italics added.
75. Ibid., 276.
76. Ibid., 335.
77. Ibid., 282.
78. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 199.
79. Ibid., 205.
80. Ibid., 201.
81. Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 71.
82. Ibid., 67. This same attitude was also prevalent during World War II.
Notes to Pages 62-69 165
83. Ibid., 134. Cross notes that “They [advertisers] redefined freedom to mean not civil liberty or the right to work, but the ability to find iden- tity in the choice of goods to buy.”
84. Ibid., 124.
85. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 219.
86. Ibid., 218–219.
87. An excellent study of the history of radio is Michelle Hilmes, Radio Voices: American Broadcasting, 1922–1952(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997).
88. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 223.
89. Ibid., 230–231.
90. Ibid., 232.
91. Ibid.
92. Ibid.
93. Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 111.
94. Ibid.
95. Ibid., 112.
96. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 240.
97. Ibid., 243.
98. Ibid., 245.
99. Fox, The Mirror Makers, 179.
100. Ibid., 178.
101. Ibid., 210.
102. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 272.
103. Fox, The Mirror Makers, 217.
104. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 253.
105. Ibid.
106. Ibid., 254, 255.
107. Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 152.
108. Fox, The Mirror Makers, 184.
109. Ibid., 187.
110. Ibid., 200.
111. Ibid., 179, 180.
112. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 265.
113. Fox, The Mirror Makers, 179.
114. Ibid., 231.
115. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 263.
116. Ibid.
117. Ibid., 281.
118. Ibid., 316.
119. Ibid., 290.
120. Fox, The Mirror Makers, 280.
121. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 302.
122. Ibid., 304.
123. Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 178.
124. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 308–309.
125. Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 167. We see the same phenomenon later in the 1990s when “grunge” and “hip-hop” fashions also get co- opted into mainstream consumerism. Italics in original.
126. Ibid.
127. Ibid., 181.
128. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 325.
129. See “Fashion, Sexuality and Representation at the Fin de Siecle” and “Re- imaging the Feminine: Fashion, Modernity and Identity in Britain between the Wars,” in Cheryl Buckley and Hilary Fawcett, Fashioning the Feminine: Representation and Women’s Fashion from the Fin de Siecle to the Present(London and New York: I.B. Tauris Publishers, 2002).
130. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 323.
131. Fox, The Mirror Makers, 299.
132. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1974).
133. Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 155.
134. Ibid., 163.
135. Fox, The Mirror Makers, 328.
136. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 356.
137. Ibid.
138. Ibid., 337.
139. Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 215.
140. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 367.
141. Ibid., 366.
142. Ibid., 373.
143. Andrew Wernick, Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology, and Symbolic Expression(London: Sage Publications, 1991), 49.
144. Julie Baumgold, “The Brad and the Beautiful,” in Vogue, November 1997.
145. Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 202.
146. Ibid., 193.
147. Sacvan Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978).
148. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 380.
149. This era saw the advent of Generation X. This was a new cynical con- sumer who was concerned less with image and more with reliability and durability in a product. Generation Xers were anti-fashion or interested in hip-hop chic as fostered by the emerging rap music
Notes to Pages 80-89 167
world. They were consumers who demanded that advertising be hon- est and simple. And of course, advertising co-opted their anticon- formist stance much like in the 1960s. Ibid., 389, 390.
150. Ibid., 360.
151. Ibid.
152. Ibid., 361.
153. Ibid., 405.
154. Theresa Howard, “Hubcap Ads Put New Spin on Marketing,” in www. keepmedia.com/pubs/USATODAY/2004.07/19.
155. Ibid.
156. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 380.
157. Leiss et al., Social Communication in Advertising, 51.
158. See Schmidt, Consumer Rites, esp. 105–191.
159. Guy Debord, The Society of the Spectacle (New York: Zone Books, 1995), 12.
160. Jameson, Postmodernism, 275.
161. Jean Baudrillard, The System of Objects, trans. James Benedict (London: Verso, 1996), 194.
162. Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 236.
163. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 397. One person was reported to have said to a young boy: “If you want to play basketball well, then buy Reeboks. If you just want to look good, then buy Nikes.” Personal conversation with family member.
164.AdbustersMay/June 2001 (Volume 9, Number 35), 83.
165. Ruth La Ferla, “Wearing Their Beliefs on Their Chests,” in the New York Times, March 29, 2005. I am grateful to Monica Ager for sug- gesting this article to me.
166. Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 236.
167. Ibid., 248.
168. Ibid.
169. Naomi Klein, No Logo: Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies(New York: St.
Martin’s Press, 1999), 90.
170. Ibid., 89.
171. It is estimated that “a billion dollars will be spent on product place- ment in the United States” in 2005. Ken Auletta, “The New Pitch: Do Ads Still Work,” in The New Yorker, March 28, 2005, 38.
172. I am indebted to Catherine Keller for suggesting this movie to me.
173. First, there have been worldwide counterculture protests at the G-8 Summit meetings and the rise of anarchist demonstrations against the consumer culture. Second, there is a trend in some affluent, middle- class communities to voluntarily downshift one’s spending in order to be more fiscally responsible and environmentally sound. Third, Kalle
Lasn leads an organization of “culture jammers” called Adbustersin which they use advertising in an ironic manner to expose the so-called evils of corporate capitalism and the branding of America. See Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 396–397; Schor, The Overspent American;
Kalle Lasn, Culture Jam: The Uncooling of AmericaTM(New York: Eagle Brook, 1999).
174. Cross, An All-Consuming Century, 242.
175. Ibid., 239.
176. http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/10/20011011–7.html.
177. Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes, 428. Italics added.