ABSTRACT
Map 1.2: Map 1.2: The Agro-Ecological Zones of Lesotho
1.5 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Environmental issues are linked with poverty. Like many other developing countries Lesotho . I bl . hr b d . "G ""B " d "R d"s Allthr faces enVlfonmenta pro ems ill t ee roa categones: reen , rown an e . ee categories have associated linkages with solid waste management problems as illustrated in Diagram 1.1
1.5.1 Green Issues (Natural Resources Management) In Lesotho, major green issues include the following:
• Soil erosion. Resulting from poor land use practices, soil erosion is estimated at an armualloss from cropland of20.4 tonnes/ha, amounting to 15.4 million tonnes/year.
The loss from range lands is put at 18.4 to nnes/ha, amounting to 23.4 million tonnes/year. Soil loss for the whole country is thus in the order of 40 million tonnes/year (GOL, 1989; Damane, 1996). It is very important to note that the indicated soil loss is not proportional to hectarage, but rather to the source. More loss comes from cropland due to heavy gully erosion. The gullies "dongas" become deep and are in turn used as illegal waste dumpsites.
5 "Green" issues are associated with environmental degradation such as natural resources depletions; while "Brown" are related to pollution of the environment "Red" deals with the social aspects such as human displacement or poverty (Green Essentials, what You Need to Know about the Environment, GeoffTey Saign, 1994, San Francisco, California).
• DeforestationlDesertification. High dependence on trees and wood as the traditional source offuel for domestic energy supply causes this environmental problem. It is seen however, that in rural and peri-urban areas, people use cow dung as a source of biomass energy while in cities, they use combustible solid wastes as sources of biomass energy. The use of solid waste for energy has an indirect positive impact on solid waste management.
• Drought/Water Scarcity. Lack of resources has added to the socio-economic problems of poor rural and some urban households, and with devastating consequences. Women walk long distances to fetch water, wasting much of their valuable productive time.
• Decline of Food Production. The issues mentioned in previous paragraphs affect the production offood, especially maize. For example, average production dropped from 1,400 kglha in 1976177 to only 600 kglha in 1985/86 (Mvuma, 1997). Low food production has been compounded by unsustainable agricultural practices, resulting in exceSSIve eroSIOn.
• Loss of Biodiversity. Most medicinal plants, strong wood and historical paintings have disappeared because of unsustainable utilisation of these resources, yet these have been a source of wealth for many centuries.
t .5.2 Brown or Pollution Issues
These include pollution of water, land and air due to several factors:
• Solid Waste Management. It has been recorded that urban solid waste management is one of the most intractable environmental problems confronting local authorities, and is listed as one of most pressing environmental problems that Lesotho faces (GOL Pre-UNCED Paper 1991; Tevera, 1996).
• Industrial and Domestic Effluent Discharge. Excessive discharge of wastes untreated domestic and industrial wastes from urban and industrial areas, poses a risk to human health in Lesotho.
• General Water Quality. The quality of water is high in the highlands (T AMS, 1996;
Maro, 1996; CSIR, 1997), whereas in the lowlands, pollution emanates from a number of sources such as industries and settlements. Improve access to safe water and
sanitation is one ofthe Government's priorities.
• Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals. These agricultural aids pose a danger to human health. Efforts to address these problems in Lesotho are in progress, through the activities of Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and a newly formed Committee on Chemicals.
1.5.3 Red Issues: or Human Social Issues
This category of environmental issues encompasses many problematic areas. Major issues in Lesotho are:
• Increasing Rural and Urban Poverty. As indicated in section 1.4.2 of this Chapter, poverty is widespread, with 55%-68% of its inhabitants living below the poverty line of a monthly expenditure less than R80 (UNDP, 1999; GOL, 2001;).
This is exacerbated by a relatively high population of2 million, with a growth rate of between 2.6 % to 2.8% per annum. Yet the labour force market does not expand. For example, by 1993, the unemployment rate was put at 36%; this figure grew to 40.5% levels by 2001 (GOL, 2001).
• Gender Concerns. In 1970, the proportion ofthe population without cropland was 11.4%; by 1987, the figure had risen to 38.5% and is now fast approaching 50%. The greater percentage of these people without cropland are women and children because the law does not give them excess to land (UNDP Human Resource Development Report 1998). This legal restriction reduces productivity and aggravates the poverty problem.
• Socio-economic Disruption. The reduction in the number of migrant workers into South Africa worsened the unemployment situation in Lesotho. For example in 1989 there were more than 125,000 Lesotho migrant workers at South Africa gold mines, but this figure dropped to only 69,000 in 1999, indicating a significant reduction (GOL, 2001). Furthermore, the post independence political climate up to the military era caused socio-economic disruptions and institutional conflicts (UNDP, 1998).
During this period, skilled labour fled the country and employment opportunities dwindled. Political will towards citizen welfare was low, as leadership, energies were focused on consolidating their power.
The proceeding paragraphs have thrown light on the interrelationship between poverty and environmental issues. These linkages are further illustrated in this Chapter by Table1.1 (illustrating GDP in relation to the trend in performance of sectors where jobs are created); Table 1.2 (showing the major sources of income ); Table 1.3 (indicates the employment status by region and
gender); Table 1.4 (showing trends of employment and unemployment in Lesotho); and Diagram 1.1. This data clearly indicates the extent of the poverty problems in Lesotho. Broad-based investment in human capital would be one of most important inputs to create employment, reduce poverty and stimulate growth. Promotion of greater livelihood diversification, including incorporating environmental concerns such as solid waste management activities in employment creation will boost poverty eradication. Table 1.1 illustrates linkages between environment and economic issues specifically poverty.
Table 1.1 Gross Domestic Products by Kind of Economic Activity (As a share ofGDP at factor cost in peJ"cent)
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Primary Sectors 11.5 13.4 13.0 10.0 13.0
Agriculture 10.7 12.9 19.9 9.5 12.9
Mining and Quarrying 0.8 0.4 0.1 0.5 0.1
Secondary Sector 39.5 37.8 41.4 44.3 44.1
Manufacturing 14.1 14.6 13.8 15.2 153
Electricity and Water 2.0 2.2 1.8 1.7 1.7
Building and Construction 23.4 21.1 25.8 27.4 27.2
Tertiary Sector 49.0 48.8 45.6 15.7 42.8
Wholesale and Retail Trade 8.7 8.9 8.8 9.3 9.5
Catering 1.3 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Transport and Communication 4.2 4.7 4.4 4.7 4.6
Finance and Insurance 9.5 8.3 83 6.9 5.8
Real Estate and Bus. Service 3.0 2.9 2.6 2.4 2.2
Ownership of Dwellings 5.6 5.5 4.9 4.6 4.2
Public Administration 11.7 11.1 10.0 9.5 8.4
Education 9.9 9.9 9.0 9.1 8.4
Health 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.8 3.1
Other Services 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3
GDP at factor cost 100 100 100 100 100
Source: Central Bank of Lesotho Annual Report 1996.
As seen in Table 1.1, agriculture accounts for only a small fraction of economic activity, an average of 12.2% in the last 5 years. Despite this low figure, it remains for now, the major role player in terms of livelihood. For example, Table 1.2 shows that agriculture contributes a major part of the incomes of households in Lesotho.
Table 1.2. Main Source of Income by region (Households) and Gender (in percent)
Total Northern Southern Foothills Senqu River Mountains Male Female
Households Lowlands Lowlands Valley
Agriculture 28.3 22.1 25.1 27.7 32.6 40.0 29.8 28.0
13.4 11.4 16.9 12.5 20.0 12.0 10.7 15.2
Remittance from relatives
Employment in private sector 22.5 25.4 20.3 24.4 20.9 17.4 25.7 21.0
Employment in government 10.0 16.9 9.0 8.2 3.9 4.6 11.3 9.5
Other 23.3 19.8 28.5 26.4 20.4 22.4 21.3 24.9
Source: Human Development Profile Survey, UNDP, 1997.
These factors are enough reason for the government of Lesotho to consider diversifYing its economy or finding means of job creation. Agriculture alone cannot reliably sustain jobs. Despite donor support, agricultural production and productivity has been falling (UNDP, 1998). Drought, cultural practices and policy failures have combined to limit land rehabilitation as well as inadvertently promote unsafe exploitation of marginal lands. However, the major reasons for the failure of agriculture to contribute to economic growth, has been the non-existence of competitive land markets. Above all, land continues to be held in trust by the chiefs.
The manufacturing sector consists largely of textile and is complemented by brewing and food processing industries, with the former contributing between 14% -15% of GDP in the five year period 1992-1996 (UNDP, 1998). The other important sector is the Distributive Trades consisting oflarge wholesale and retail enterprises in Lesotho, managed by South African firms and the state -owned Lesotho National Development Corporation (LNDC), whose contribution to GDP stood at 9.5% in 1996 (UNDP, 1998).
The tourism sector has good potential for growth. Though the sector contributed to no more than 1.5% ofGDP over five year period (1992-1996), its potential stands high following development of the Katse Dam. Currently, the two main industrial areas in Lesotho are situated in Leribe (Maputsoe) and Maseru, both of which fall within the Northern Lowlands. More employment opportunities generating activities are possible through creation of tour guides, tour operator training, resort accommodation, etc. Integrated solid waste management in Lesotho would enhance the growth of Tourism sector.
Table 1.3 Employment Status by Region and Gender (in percent)
Total NOJ1hem Southern Senqu
Households Lowlands Lowlands Foothills Rivel· Valley Mountains Male Female
Self Employed 8.8 12.5 9.5 8.0 7.4 4.1 9.3 9.3
Employee 25.9 35.2 22.4 26.6 15.2 17.7 39.8 19.7
Seeking Work 16.0 13.9 23.0 16.1 15.7 14.1 19.6 15.0
Unpaid Family
Worker 43.6 32.8 45.1 43.3 56.6 65.9 30.8 54.6
Source: Human Development Profile Survey, UNDP, 1997.
The base of growth in Lesotho has been the formal sector, which account for 10%-12 % of employment. The estimated potential workforce ofLesotho is about 800,000 of which 225,000 are estimated to have formal employment. New labour market entrants are estimated to be 25,000 per year (UNDP, 1998). The Sixth Development Plan of 1997 indicates that, the domestic formal sector can only absorb limited number of 9,000 new entrants per year into labour market. The increase in employment still falls short of the rate needed to absorb a net increase in the labour force at about 25,000 per year. Hence the need for diversification of the employment oppo rtunities.
The public sector happens to be the largest employer. It provided 33,000 jobs in 1996, while industry provided some 17,000 jobs (UNDP, 1998). Other formal sector jobs are in the other tertiary sectors, though it remains difficult to assess employment changes in these sectors. These facts, supported by evidence in Table 1.4 show trends in employment and underemployment in Lesotho. In this way job, creation efforts in the informal sector should be encouraged, and the solid waste management activities could contribute to the process of job creation.
Table 1.4 Trends in Employment and Unemployment in Lesotho: 197611986/1996
Labour Force Year 1976 Year 1986 Year 1996
Category
Employed Number 0/0 of Number 0/0 of Number 0/0 of
Persons employable employable employable
category category category
Males 273,691 95.4 342,163 93.0 297,842 78.1
Females 125,800 92.0 126,510 92.9 140,800 73.4
Total 399,491 94.3 468,673 93.0 438,642 76.5
Unemployed
Males
13,270 4.6 25,810 7.0 83,456 21.9
Females
10,913 8.0 9,368 7.1 50,966 26.6
Total
24,183 5.7 35,448 7.0 134,422 23.5
Source: Bureau of Statistics: Population Census Anal~·tical Report, Maseru 1999.
As indicated, Lesotho has already put the issue of poverty reduction and job creation as a priority in its National Development Plans. In addition, Lesotho has documented that 68% of the total population fall into poverty defInition (Sechaba, 1999; UNDP, 2000; GOL, 2001). More over 70% of poor people are defIned as "destitute", with a monthly income/expenditure of less than M40.
More details on solid waste management in the national context and problem statement are given in Chapter 2.