Cluster III. Good governance: where the strategy aims at developing structures and systems of democratic governance that are participatory, representative, accountable and inclusive and
3.4 Models and the theoretical perspective that guided the study
3.4.2 Multiple stakeholder model of the Washington State University (WSU)
predominant perspective of the role of ICTs for poverty reduction has been described as being techno-centric and deterministic and providing unwarranted claims about the future impact of ICTs on the lives of poor in the developed world (Moodley and Cloete 2004).
The application of the UNDP model and other related perspectives on the role of ICTs for poverty reduction in developing countries needs to be done with caution. It is evident from the literature that simple relationships between development and ICTs may not be realistic.
Rodriguez and Wilson (2000: 3) pointed out that claims about the link between ICTs and progress are not correct and, in some cases, may be dangerously wrong. Mitchell and Gill (2002) claimed that ICTs are important tools, but not a solution in itself for economic or social problems. For ICTs to effectively influence development, other factors need to be taken into consideration. Some of these include the development and effective implementation of pro-poor national ICT policies, so as to ensure that the benefits of ICTs accrue to other sectors such as transportation, education and health services (AISI 2003; Etta and Parvyn-Wamahiu 2003: 27-28; OECD 2004).
Figure 3.2: Washington State University model
The community represents the top stakeholders in this model because it is the major beneficiary of any initiative to bridge the digital divide. The emphasis should be on making ICTs widely available and affordable, so that the community might utilise ICTs to expand local education, enhance local health care, improve civic interaction and develop mechanisms for community support.
Building the ICT infrastructure is the second dimension of the model. ICT infrastructure requires a significant capital investment, which may only be afforded by national governments. Many national governments in the developing world are unable to meet the challenges alone.
Many governments formulate public policies that enable and regulate the primary builders and providers of the ICT infrastructure. The makers of public policy have a responsibility to develop and maintain an enabling regulatory environment that encourages investment by private organisations and businesses in ICT infrastructure. Public policies regulate telecommunication service providers in order to protect public interests in the absence of state ownership (Parker, Kirkpatrick and Theodorakopoulou 2005). Wallsten (2002) pointed out
that telecommunication sector regulators have an important role to play in poverty reduction efforts using ICTs. Regulators can fulfil this role by promoting and facilitating universal access to networks and bridging the digital divide. Without efficient and well-grounded regulatory process, efforts to use ICTs for poverty reduction are less likely to be successful (Ure 2003).
The WSU model supports the whole idea of telecommunication sector reforms, to bring ICT services to the majority. The model emphasises the importance of having an effective regulatory regime as a way of leveraging the role of ICTs for development and poverty reduction. The application of this model in the context of developing countries can be seen in the current trends towards liberalisation of the ICTs sector and the move away from monopolistic provision of the ICTs services and the introduction of competition in the sector.
In many developing countries the regulatory agencies have played a very important role in improving the accessibility of ICT facilities, especially in urban areas. The challenge of bringing ICTs to rural areas where the majority of people in developing countries live, and where poverty is deeply rooted, is still huge. Studies have shown that it is not clear whether and how regulators attempt to gauge the views of the poor and there is a concern that regulators receive most of their information from the regulated firms, politicians and higher income groups or elites (Parker, Kirkpatrick and Theodorakopoulou 2005).
To be effective ICT regulators in developing countries need to understand the needs of the poor, their location and the real barriers to their access to adequate services. The ICT regulators need to understand the different ways in which the interests of the poorest might be best advanced. Therefore, much more needs to be done to enhance the role of regulatory agencies in poverty reduction using ICTs.
The major emphasis of the WSU model is on regulating the ICTs market so that developing communities may benefit through the application of ICTs. Consequently, WSU is working towards strengthening regulatory capacities in Africa. The goal of the WSU programme is to enable African telecommunications regulatory communities to draft advanced-level policies
that will lead to effective and efficient telecommunications markets (WSU, CBDD 2006). As the UNDP model, the WSU framework tends to be techno-deterministic, as it almost equates technological advancement with social progress without taking into consideration the political, social and economic dynamics of individuals, countries and organisations (Henwood et al., 2000: 9-11). In fact, according to Loader (1998: 15):
The development of the information society is not likely to be characterised by a linear technological progression, but rather through the competing forces of innovation, competitive advantage, human agency and social resistance (cited in Henwood et al., 2000: 15).
Indeed, the other models discussed in this section warn against a simplistic and deterministic view of the role of ICTs in poverty reduction (Heeks 2005a).
3.4.3 Information and communication technologies and socio-economic development