5.6 Research Reflexivity
6.1.3 The Perceived Crises of Sexuality
6.1.3.2 Perceived Crisis of Same-gender Sexualities
Van Klinken (2011a, 2011b and 2013) addresses similar concerns and not only critiques dominant masculinities but also challenges the impact of male sexuality on patterns of masculinities around church praxis within an HIV and AIDS context from an African Christian perspective. Arguing that men’s behaviour in sexual relationships has been the subject of recent scholarly investigation (van Klinken 2011b:281), I concur with van Klinken’s cautions against the fault of generalisation which depicts African men as being dominant and unable to control their sexuality. However, the crucial question still remains: why does male sexuality tend to be expressed through dominance and power (van Klinken 2011b). An answer to this concern (of course not as simply stated here), is that sexuality for most men is closely linked to their perception of being a ‘real man’ and either threatens or strengthens their sense of masculinity. It is within this contradiction that perceived crisis in masculinity exists. One would then argue that male sexuality saturates the image of ‘masculinity’ to an extent that it forms part of masculine security or insecurity for some men.
I now turn to faith discourses which concern perception of crisis in masculinity and seek to address men on issues related to same-gender sexualities.
actually the first man whom am talking to about this, except my wife am married to now. This made me very negative in life reaching to a stage where sometimes I did not care (Mighty Man #12, interview 17 July 2011).
This extract opens a space for longer dialogue between the intersections of sexuality, gender, religion, culture and politics as relates to issues of same-sex relationships and perceptions of crisis in masculinities. Note the emphasis made on “The reason for this separation was not that there was somebody else involved or anything like that … my wife left me for another wife, another woman. Not another man, another woman.” This shows how culturally it could have been at least ‘bearable’ if his wife had left him for another man not for another woman. The emphasis “not that three was somebody else involved or anything like that…”
reinforces a strong recognition of heterosexual relations which is widely acceptable in conservative evangelicalism unlike same-sex sexualities which is considered to be sin.
The act of his wife leaving him and the fact that I was the first man (male) he has ever shared this with speaks volumes in itself. I did not probe further why Mighty Man #12 was heartbroken and turned negative. However, I suppose that it might have been his gendered interpretation of this occurrence of his wife leaving him that might have led to feelings of being not a ‘real man’ or ‘man enough,’ thereby informing his attitude of
‘carelessness,’ a seeming perception of ‘crisis’ in the manner he configured his masculinity. Hence, may be the fear and pressure of social humiliation, gossip and criticisms might have held Mighty Man #12 from speaking about this incidence to other fellow men. The separation and the reason for separation also indicates that culturally and religiously, same-gender relationships are not an option among Charismatic, Evangelical Christians but remains an unacceptable sexual ‘distortion’ form the norm of heterosexuality.
Although Buchan’s faith discourse on same-sex relations is not wide-ranging, it is clear from his minor mention in one sermon that homosexuality remains a ‘perversion’ of manhood, clearly understood to indicate a perceived crisis in masculinity. Hence, same- sex orientation was strongly discouraged among the MMC followers:
My vision is to see sin called by its name. I don’t hate homosexuals, man!
I don’t hate lesbians. I pray for them. But what they are doing cannot be tolerated. No! It’s goanna die! We have got to start calling it by its name.
If you do that you are going to see revival like never before. Abortion is not an option, its murder. Finished! This gospel is very simple. Very simple (2008, Dying to Live, Conference DVD, Disk #3).
Evident from Buchan’s observation in this quote, (so it is with majority of Charismatic, Evangelical/Pentecostal Christians), same-sex relationships remains a sin necessitating
‘conversion.’ For example, the “act” of homosexuality is strongly condemned, as is mostly described in faith discourse from a perspective of “hate the sin love the sinner”
approach. With the worldview that the MMC is an ideal community (see some stories of life and relationship in the MMC as a discussed by Vels 2012), it is obvious that homosexuality is considered a deviation from godly manhood. Although homosexuals were allowed ‘inclusion’ into the MMC gatherings, they might not have been openly accepted on the basis of their orientation. Prayers are therefore recommended as needful towards disorientation, a predominant solution to this ‘distortion’ of or perceived crisis in manhood.
In the process of seeking to maintain a masculine gender identity, Juan Manuel Falomir- Pichastor and Gabriel Mugny (2009) have shown that the very definition of masculinity involves not being homosexual, whereas this is not the case for femininity because this is based on an inner organizing principle of our cultural meaning of manhood. Hence, Falomir-Pichastor and Mugny’s (2009:1233-1235) research finding postulates that homosexuality constitutes a threat specifically to our cultural understanding of masculinity (i.e., hegemonic masculinity) which often leads to sexual prejudice (which is more related to heterosexual men’s positive gender self-esteem).75 Van Klinken (2011a:144) also makes similar observation in his research and he shows how homosexuality was perceived as “threatening the status and nature of fatherhood in the 21st century.”
Indicating that homosexuality is perceived as crisis in masculinity, Buchan on another account points out:
Once while I was walking from the tent across a paddock toward the Seedsower, which we were using as part of the event, a man walked up to me, fell on his knees in the open paddock and said, “Please, Uncle Angus, pray for me. I want my life to be straightened out. I’m homosexual and I don’t want to follow that route any longer.” Right there in the open on a Sunday morning I was able to pray for him. I believe this man is living
75 From their findings, Falomir-Pichastor and Mugny (2009) have shown that hegemonic masculinity is considered as the true nature of men, and involves mainly heterosexism (i.e., an ideological system that focuses on the primacy of heterosexuality and the processes maintaining heterosexuals’ social power and privilege) and opposition to femininity
straight life because of his genuine sincerity (2012:148).
Overall, without getting into some recorded debates why homosexuality is disapproved, it is crucial to note the implications of same-gender sexualities on perceptions and constructions of masculinities within African Charismatic and Evangelical Christians.76 A gender-critical analysis of discourses on masculinity and homosexuality is still narrow and research on this area is limited, requiring further academic attention.77 With an exception of van Klinken’s78 contribution, see for instance the lack thereof on this subject in the Special issue of Same-Sex Sexuality in Africa by Journal of Gender and Religion in Africa (2011) and also in Chitando’s and Chirongoma’s (2012) recent edited volume on Redemptive Masculinities: Men, HIV and Religion. However, in relation to ideals of hegemonic masculinity it is certain that homosexual men in a context such as that of the MMC are perceived by heterosexual males as not able to meet the prescribed ‘measure’
of godly manhood and thus fail to portray the socio-religious expectations of ideal manhood. This analysis is also discussed by van Klinken (see 2011a, 2011c, and 2013) on his Zambian research findings of a similar Pentecostal context where homosexuality is understood as a counter-example and a serious distortion of what biblical manhood is supposed to be. Liz Walker (2005) in this case highlights that, the liberal versions of sexuality which mark South Africa’s new democracy, have led to a number of conflicting consequences for women and men.79 In the process, she mentions that old notions of masculinity and conceptions of manhood have been destabilized (Walker 2005). Arguing also that gay liberation politics have continued to call into question the conventional understanding of what it means to be a man, Tim Carrigan, et al (1985:586) have asserted
76 It is within this combination of responses that the MMC takes a conservative stern objection against homosexuality as a ‘distortion’ to manhood. Known to others as the “potato prophet” Buchan has been categorised among other faith preachers in South Africa listed as evangelical fundamentalists who strongly opposes gay rights (see Engela 2013,) <http://www.secularism.org.uk/christian-homophobes-are- spreadi.html>. In such cases, homosexual men automatically remain subordinate and as a result are seen to possess subordinate forms of masculinities.
77 Significant to mention though at this point is that while gay writings may or may not problematize men’s power or even the category of ‘men’ itself, Jeff Hearn (2004:50) argues that this has not been the case with much queer writing which certainly does problematize the category of men, along with other gender and sexual binaries.
78 For further reading on existing debates on homosexuality and masculinity, see Adriaan van Klinken, ‘The Homosexual as the Antithesis of “Biblical manhood”? Heteronormaivity and Masculinity Politics in Ziambia Pentecostal Sermons,’ Journal of Gender and Religion in Africa, 17/2 (2011), 126-142.
79 Walker (2005) refers to the liberalisation of the South African constitution in relation to its position on sexuality, and points out to studies which hold that the implementation of “constitutional sexuality” is the main cause of the rise in homophobic violence which take forms of sexual assault and rape. Not alluding to such studies, Walker (2005) argues that the increased visibility of homosexuality as a result of constitutional reforms should not be looked at as the only factor compelling increased sexual violence, keeping in mind the history of sexual abuse in South Africa.
that, “consideration of homosexuality thus provides the beginnings of a dynamic conception of masculinity as a structure of social relations.” Charismatic, Evangelicals such as the MMC are still a long way from accepting same-sex orientation as a structure of social relations.