The Australian Education Review
by
Phillip McKenzieIn 1967 a new type of educational pub- lication was launched in Australia. Entitled the Quarterly Review of Australian Educa- tion, the new publication was designed to help meet the need for informed discussion on emerging issues of national educational importance. In many instances the early numbers of the Review represented the first detailed treatment of particular issues to be made available in a generally acces- sible form. The limited availability of pub- lished data and the hitherto cursory dis- cussion of many important educational issues meant that the Review soon won a wide audience and numbers devoted to topics such as education finance (1967), pre-school education (1968) and tertiary selection (1969) were often prominent in national debate.
In 1974 the format and title of the series changed. Renamed the Australian Educa- tion Review, production was reduced to an average of two numbers per year, but each was to be of a substantially greater length than attempted under the quarterly format.
These changes were a response to the strong growth in the volume of educational research literature that occurred in Aus- tralia during the early 1970s. Stimulated by a significant increase in Commonwealth funding and the expansion of teacher train-
ing institutions, academic writings on
Australian education grew at a rapid rate.
Accordingly, compared with the situation that existed in the previous decade, there was a more obvious need for a review series which could provide a broad, author-
itative overview of work which had taken
place in a particular area and place that work in the context of other developments in Australian education. However, despite this changed emphasis the essential feat- ures of the Review which have enabled it to perform a unique role in Australian education remain unaltered.
Key Features of the Review
The key distinguishing feature of the Review is that each number in the series is devoted to the discussion of a single topic in depth. This orientation has been pursued through a format which is normally no more than 100 pages in length, written in a generally accessible style and pro- duced at modest cost. By this approach the Review aims to combine a comprehensive- ness of coverage which journal articles rarely achieve with an ease of access often denied to full-scale monographs.
Another important characteristic of the Review is the focus on educational issues of national importance. The series has sought to avoid reporting of the results of single studies or the discussion of issues of only local significance.
Topics for the Series
Under the quarterly format 24 numbers were produced between 1967 and 197 4.
Since then a further 21 reviews have appeared. A common feature of the early reviews was the concentration on issues of significance to one sector of Australian education for example secondary schools (1968), Catholic schools (1969) and ad- vanced education (1971 ). In later numbers it is possible to detect a greater emphasis on issues of importance to more than one education sector such as religious studies (1975), educating for literacy and numeracy (1978) and bilingual education (1982). A further important strand which has become apparent reflects increased awareness of the interdependence between education and other sectors of society. Examples of reviews of this type are provided by studies of the transition from school to work (1979), education and employment (1981) and recurrent education (1983).
As noted above, an important criterion in the selection of topics for the series is that the issues concerned be of either current or emerging national educational
significance. The 1984 review of computing
in schools provides a good example of the
latter consideration.
Editorial Policy
The majority of the numbers published in the series have been specially commis- sioned. In the early years most of the reviews were prepared by ACER staff. Over the past decade most of the numbers have been written by non-ACER staff members.
It is probable that the majority of reviews will continue to be commissioned. How- ever, offers of manuscripts are most welcome. In the case of both commis- sioned and non-commissioned reviews the same policies apply, namely that
• the review should address an educa- tional issue of national significance;
• the manuscript should comprehensively review developments in the area and place these developments in the context of emerging trends in Australian educa- tion and society;
• the review should be written in a non- technical style and would normally be no more than 100 pages in length;
• all manuscripts are subjected to review by referees before acceptance for pub- lication.
Detailed editorial guidelines are available from the Editor.
Note
Phillip McKenzie has been editor of the Australian Education Review since the beginning of 1984. He may be contacted on editorial matters at ACER, Radford House, Frederick Street, Hawthorn 3122.
Enquiries about the availability of particular numbers in the series should be directed to ACER's Distribution Services Division at the above address or on (03)8181271.
Circulation of ACER Newsletter
The ACER Newsletter is produced three times each year in April, July and November.
One copy is mailed to the principal of every educational institution in Australia and to all other interested persons on request.
staying high at school victoria in
John ain!ey margaret batten hilary miller
Staying at High School in Victoria
John Ainley, Margaret Batten and Hilary Miller
This study was concerned with the re- tention of students from Year 10 to Year 12 in the government high schools of Victoria.
Its primary focus was on understanding the differences in retention rates between schools. It examined retention rates, and the views of students, teachers, parents and former students. It was conducted at the request of and with assistance from the Education Department of Victoria.
Differences between schools in reten- tion rates from Year 11 to Year 12 were associated with both the environment in which the school was located (socio- economic status, percentage of students of a non-English speaking background, and whether the school was in the city or country), and the offering of an alternative program at Year 12. Even though relatively few high schools offered such programs at Year 12, for those schools the retention rate was higher than would have been expected. The general increase in re- tentivity in Victorian high schools and elsewhere might be largely attributed to declining job opportunities for youth, but it seemed that school program differences contributed to the higher retention rates in some schools.
These general findings were consistent with the information gathered in more detailed studies of 16 specially selected schools. Six of these schools offered an alternative program to that based largely on Group 1 subjects. Four of those schools had higher than expected retention rates and the remaining two appeared to be in the process of changing. In those schools students made positive comments about enjoyment of school, good teacher-student relations, and the interest and relevance of school work, to a greater extent than students in other schools. Most of the schools had established effective co- ordination of the teaching program and had instituted provisions for pastoral care of
2
students. Schools with higher than ex- pected retention rates which did not offer alternative curricula had an academic orientation and very successful records in public examinations. These schools gen- erally believed that the programs they offered fulfilled the expectations of the local community. Yet in many of those schools students from Year 10 expressed a wish for a more broadly based curriculum in the senior years.
Reasons given by students for com- pleting Year 12 seemed to place greater emphasis on the personal investment value of schooling. Future career requirements loomed large in the reasons given by Year 10 students for planning to complete Year 12, by current Year 12 students for continuing to Year 12, and by former students for having completed Year 12.
Students who placed great importance on this reason for continuing their education seemed to do so regardless of the type of program provided by the school. In addi-
tion, being able to do useful subjects was
important to many students as was the prospect that more school would help in obtaining a job. In the interviews Year 10 students suggested useful subjects were subjects which related to a career path or job. Students who placed importance on this aspect of personal investment in schooling may have been influenced by the type of curriculum available.
Enjoyment of school and interest in school work were middle ranked reasons for remaining at school. Even though these intrinsic reasons for completing school were accorded less importance than per- sonal investment reasons they were of moderate importance for many students.
This rating was consistent across students in Year 10 and Year 12 and former stu- dents.
The study found that, in addition to the curriculum factors already discussed, an intention to remain at school to Year 12 was closely linked to students' perceptions of their ability and students' perceptions of the quality of school life. In addition to general satisfaction (interest, enjoyment) with school a sense of achievement, a sense of relevance and a feeling of good relations with teachers were more impor- tant aspects of the quality of school life to intended school stayers than to intended school leavers. These domains of the quality of school life reflected both the notion of personal investment and the notion of satisfaction. It was also found that both curriculum factors and the extent of co-ordination of the school program related to quality of school life. The associations between various factors and student in- tentions to stay at school to Year 12 have been summarized in an accompanying diagram.
The results of the study suggested among other things that the increased retention rates noticed in 1983 would continue and perhaps increase further in subsequent years. If that eventuates the most critical question concerns the ways in which the education system should respond or indeed whether it should re- spond at all. Through this study a number of ways in which schools have responded have been indicated and the views of students have been outlined. It is hoped that those observations will help shape the ways in which we think about the role of schooling beyond Year 10 for the remain- der of the eighties.
Student and School Characteristics
Student Perceptions
Student Intentions
Perceived
A b i l i t y ~
Socioeconomic Status - - -- - - - - Non-English Background
Intention to Complete Year 12
Ooainyof//
/4
School UfeCmitcolom Type
~
Extent of Co-ordination Teacher Experience
Figure 1 Factors Associated with an Intention to Complete Year 12
Staying at High School in Victoria
$9.95 RRP from ACER or bookshops.
ACER Newsletter No. 51, July, 1984
Bias Sex ASAT? in
Raymond). Adam, .,.___. _ __,
6)
Sex Bias in ASAT?
Raymond Adams
The Australian Scholastic Aptitude Test (ASAT) is a multiple choice test of 100 items. In the Australian Capital Territory, Queensland and Western Australia stu- dents sit the test in their final year of secondary school. Student performances on the test are then used in the standard- ization procedures that are undertaken for the calculation of student grades and tertiary entrance scores.
Since 1977, when ASAT was first used in the Australian Capital Territory as a moderating device, there have been differ- ences in the average performance of males and females on the test. Although the sex differences in mean ASAT scores had been observed since 1977, not until 1981 and 1982 were the differences regarded as substantial. In the Australian Capital Terri- tory in 1981, the male mean ASAT score exceeded the female mean ASAT score by 5.1 points, and in 1982 the difference was 6.8 points. Since sex differences were also being observed in Queensland and West- ern Australia, representatives from the three systems resolved in June 1983 to undertake a research project to investigate the possible bias in ASAT.
As the retention rate for females ex- ceeded that of males there remained the possibility that a greater number of less able females were staying on at school.
This would tend to reduce the mean score for female students. After the investigation of this issue it was found that if retention rates for male and female students were equal, no significant sex difference could be expected.
When the large difference between ASAT scores occurred in 1982, the Aus- tralian Capital Territory Schools Authority came under pressure from the single sex girls schools within the Australian Capital Territory to do something about the 'sex bias'. At about the same time Senator Ryan, the Commonwealth Minister for ACER Newsletter No. 51, July, 1984
Education and Youth Affairs, expressed the view that the differences between male and female scores were unacceptable.
In 1983, the Australian Capital Territory Schools Accrediting Agency, a standing committee of the Australian Capital Terri- tory Schools Authority, recognized the impracticability of gathering any significant additional data before making a decision for that year. It therefore established an independent Review Panel to consider the existing data and advise on the procedures to be employed in 1983. After considering available research in the area concerned with the possible effects of differences between the sexes in retention rates and curriculum choice the Review Panel re- commended that a post test correction factor of one third of the difference be- tween the means of the standardized ASAT scores of male and female students should be undertaken.
In the investigation of other possible influences on ASAT mean scores three powerful variables were noted: Confidence in success, hours spent in the study of mathematics and English assessments.
Each of these variables was found to have a significant effect on ASAT scores. Sex was found to have no significant direct effect on ASAT after taking into account English ability, experience in mathematics and confidence in success.
The Australian Capital Territory Schools Authority accepted these recommenda- tions as an interim measure for 1983 alone.
This resulted in the female students being allocated an extra 0.995 score points on their 1983 ASAT scores. These adjusted scores were used in the calculation of the standardized scores for performance on ASAT recorded on the students' cer- tificates and in the application of modera- tion procedures between schools and subjects for the calculation of moderated subject and course scores and the Tertiary Entrance Score.
The investigation presented in the report was concerned with obtaining evidence that might assist in the resolution of the issue of whether or not sex bias existed in ASAT and whether, if such a bias of a systematic kind existed, it could be cor- rected for by an adjustment to the scores of one group of students.
After a review of the previous research in the area the separate importance of five key issues was noted:
1 Retention 2 Attitudes 3 Preparation 4 Item Bias
5 Differential coursework
By simultaneously examining these is- sues the nature and origins of the observed sex differences in ASAT mean scores were investigated. As a result of the diversity of these issues, the study had a multifaceted nature, utilizing analyses that ranged from the somewhat arbitrary examination of interview data to the application of statistic- ally sophisticated techniques Despite the
range of techniques employed and ana- lyses undertaken, every technique comple- mented each of the others in the develop- ment of a body of evidence regarding the above mentioned five issues.
In undertaking the investigation it was first noted that a greater proportion of female students remained at school for Year 12 than did males. While concen- trating on the Australian Capital Territory it was noted that the differences in ASAT scores had risen at the same time that differences in male and female retention rates had increased.
As the retention rate for females ex- ceeded that of males there remained the possibility that a greater number of less able females were staying on at school.
This would tend to reduce the mean score for female students. After the investigation of this issue it was found that if retention rates for male and female students were equal, no significant sex difference could be expected.
However the greater retention rate of females could only explain about half of the observed differences in the mean scores of male and female students. This indicated a relationship between retention rate differ- ences and other factors such as; curricular differences through different subject choices of males and fe111ales, test and item bias and differences between the sexes in attitudes and expectations.
In the investigation of other possible influences on ASAT mean scores three powerful variables were noted: Confidence in success, hours spent in the study of mathematics and English assessments.
Each of these variables was found to have a significant effect on ASAT scores. Sex was found to have no significant direct effect on ASAT after taking into account English ability, experience in mathematics and confidence in success.
The evidence presented in the report suggests that students are not advantaged or disadvantaged on the basis of their sex.
However, females as a group were found to have a lower mean score on ASAT largely because they showed much less confidence in success than did males. In the sample studied in this investigation, the largest single factor that advantaged or disadvantaged students' performance on ASAT was their amount of confidence in success.
Since the major conclusion of the in- vestigation was that a student's sex had no direct effect on ASAT, an adjustment to the scores of female students would appear questionable. It appears from this report that students are disadvantaged on ASAT if they have low confidence. To improve ASAT marks it would seem desirable to increase the confidence of all students, and in particular girls, since they currently have significantly less confidence than their male counterparts.
Sex Bias in ASAT?
$10.95 RRP from ACER or bookshops.
3
Staying at High School in Victoria
J. Ainley, M. Batten
,H. Miller $9.95
What schools do CAN make a difference for their students
':• attitudes
• willingness to stay at school
Examples from Victorian Schools are discussed and analyzed.
Issues of the Eighties: Principals' Perspectives and School Practices
Margaret Batten $7.50
Schools need to and DO respond to current events and trends:
• co-operat
ive learning• preparation for the world of work
• spec ial social competencies, etc.
Describes responses of a number of schools from across Australia.
Computing in Schools: An Australian Perspective
Jonathan Anderson $7.95
This book is abou t computing NOT computers in Australian schools.
How computers are used:
• for learning about computers
• learning with computers
A review of Australian and overseas experience with a look at the future implications.
~ - - - - - - - - - - > ? - ORDER FORM 'PERFECT FOR PRINCIPALS'
To: ACER Distributi on Services Divis ion
9 Frederick Street, Hawthorn, Victor ia 3122, Australia Telephone (03) 818 1271
Please supply:
Staying at High School in Vict o ri a
..... .... .... ...
.. .Issues of the Eighti es: Pr incipals ' Perspectives and School Pract ices Computing in Schools: An Australian Perspective
......
...... .
We enclose a cheque for $ ....
...... ... ... ... .
~
0CAT. NO. PRICE QTY SUB TOTAL
317BK $9.95 ..
..... . 312BK $7.50 ... . ... . 315BK $7.95 ... .
TOTAL$ _ _ _or charge to: Bankcard Authorisation
Name
..... .... ...
......
...... ... .. 0iliJ [D [lJ] ,._-I I
lr---T'--1 lr-9""'"'11 ISchool ...
......
...... .... ... . Signature: _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Address
......
....... ... ... ...
.....
... ,
... ... ... Postcode .. ... ...
..Expiry Date: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
STEP /Teen ORDER FORM
ITEM CAT. NO. PRICE QUANTITY SUB TOTAL
The Parent's Guide 500 HR $14.30 Leader's Guide 501 HR $49.95 Complete Kit 990 HR $154.50
Sampler Set 703 HR $11.35
...TO: ACER, Distribution Services Division,
TOTALP.O. Box 210, Please supply the above items as indicated.
Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia 3122 We
enclose a chequefor
$ ... .Telephone: (03) 818 1271
or chargeto:
NAME
... . Bankcard authorisationGEGDJITDIII I III
SCHOOL ...
.......
.... .ADDRESS ...
... . Signature:....
... POSTCODE ... . Expiry Date* ---
STEP /Teen
Systematic Training for Effective Parenting of Teens
by Don Dinkmeyer & Gary D. McKay
Tolk - ~ • r-'al."'-. · •
,. :::;;"': .".;;.,..,.
-· ~-
'I. _..,J,1>-- .ft\
''""""" ..
\ -/ .,, .. - .,,. v,; ~..-en,'S
~
... 'f.:-; ...
~..
STEP /Teen teaches the same practical,
workable principles as
STEP.But this new program discusses specific problems that parents
encounter as their children go through their teen years
.Each
STEP /Teenkit includes these materials:
The Parent's Guide • Ten chapters of readings
,charts, problem situations
,and personal
development exercises prepare participants for each session and provide a focal point for discussion
.One copy is provided for the leader;
individual copies for participants must be ordered separately
.500 HR $14.30
A Leader's Guide • This comprehensive guide contains introduction and rationale; ways to organize and conduct your group
; detailedguidelines for weekly sessions, outlining activities,
exercises, discussion questions, and readings
;complete text of the recordings.
501 HR $49.95
Five Audiocassettes • Dramatized vignettes vividly demonstrate concepts
,model skills, and stimulate enthusiastic follow-up discussion.
Plus seven Discussion Guide Cards; a sample Certificate of Participation;
anAnnouncement Poster, Invitational Fliers, and other Publicity Aids to inform prospective participants.
990 HR Complete STEP
/Teen Kit $154.50 To evaluate STEP /Teen . . .
Order a Sampler, which includes a copy of The Parent's Guide and an overview of the program.
703 HR STEP
/Teen Sampler, postpaid $11.35
(Cost of sampler will be discounted if complete
kit purchased
.)The ACER Australian Biology Test Item Bank Project
David W. Brown
• 'Where can I find an objective test that adequately measures my students' abilities in only the areas I want to test?'
• 'Where can I find a test that is not biased against my students even though it may be fine for the 'average' student?'
The answer, of course is to write your own. But not all of us have (a) the ability and time to write a test full of good objective test items of appropriate cognitive and ability ranges, or (b) the facilities to analyze the items to make sure they are measuring what we want them to measure. Why not have a bank of test items covering all the suggested course, from which items can be selected based on each teacher's criteria?
Beginning the project
With the current world-wide interest in test item banks, and the success of the ACER Australian Chemistry Test Item Bank, a Biology Test Item Bank Project was begun.
The recent increase in school-based as- sessment throughout Australia and the introduction of revised biology course statements and course materials have changed the emphases in biology educa- tion. New assessment material was needed to meet these changes. Dr Jeffrey J. Sewell was seconded to the ACER from the Education Department of Victoria to initiate and direct the •first year's development of the project, and later Mr David W. Brown was seconded from the same Department to direct the project to completion.
The aim was to develop a collection of test items with the following criteria:
• relevance to current biological concepts
• statistical and educational soundness
• scientific accuracy
• assessment of a wide range of abilities and cognitive processes, including ana- lysis of data
• covering all key concepts of core and elective studies of Year 11 and 12 Biology courses throughout Australia;
irrespective of course materials in use.
To ensure national representation, all
Sample Biology Test Item
states and territories were invited to con- tribute to the development of the item bank.
Item writing and reviewing teams were established in the ACT, NSW, SA, Vic. and WA, and contributed significantly to the overall balance of items selected.
Item production and selection
Throughout the project, practising biology educators wrote items directed towards the assessment of particular course state- ments. Panels of teachers reviewed and selected the items, according to the above criteria and assigned to them a cognitive level thought to be the most appropriate skill being used by a majority of students when answering the items. (This factor, together with the difficulty level obtained by trial testing, are the two most important factors considered by a teacher setting a topic test or examination.)
Trial-testing was then conducted to provide empirical evidence on the items and to obtain the very constructive com- ments of teachers and students. It provided data on item difficulty, and on the suitability of answers and distractors. As the purpose of testing was to evaluate the items, the sample selection was not as stringent as
would have been necessary if norming was
being carried out. Trial-testing was per- formed in over 100 selected government, Catholic and independent schools in the ACT, NSW, SA, Vic. and WA, at both Year 11 and 12 levels. Over 1,500 items were selected for inclusion in the item bank.
Application of the Item Bank
The bank has been structured to ensure consistency of approach and to allow for variations in emphases on core and elec- tive studies according to the various educational authorities. As the Web of Life materials (Australian Academy of Science) are the most widely used resource, and these materials were modelled on the various national courses, the third edition Web of Life course statements provided useful guidelines. However, this item bank is designed to be useful irrespective of teaching materials, and in more specific areas of biology education besides the senior secondary courses. Tertiary edu- cators will find an immediate application,
Grevillea x gaudichaudii is a natural hybrid between G. acanthifo/ia and . G. laurifolia occurring in the Blue Mountains of New South Wales. Populations of the hybrid show a graduation of characteristics ranging from forms closely resembling G. acanthifolia to those closely resembling G. laurifo/ia.
In the future G. x gaudichaudii will be regarded as a distinct species if A its population contain identical individuals.
B its parent species become extinct.
C it loses the capacity to be pollinated from adjoining populations of either parent species.
D it ceases to interbreed with either parent species and produce fertile progency.
For the above item the correct response should be selected. The Item Bank also includes incorrect response type items used in Year 12 in Victoria.
6
as many of the basic biological concepts are tested using current data.
How can the items be used?
During the project, one factor became increasingly clear, and markedly affected item selection: multiple choice items have a wide variety of applications. Of course, they are ideally suited to diagnostic and achievement test construction, but they also contain a wealth of material for class and home revision, and topic introduction;
essay, extended response or true/false item framework; debates; and as stimulus material for research work they are excel- lent. Selection of items from the bank is simplified by the marginal notes which include for each item:
• The course statement(s) to which it applies
• the approximate cognitive level at which most students will answer
• the difficulty on a rating of 1 to 5
• the answer, and
• whether or not, during trial testing, the item was found to discriminate well between the more able and less able students.
Format and availability
The ACER Australian Biology Test Item Bank is being published in two volumes.
Volume I contains items testing the most common Part 1 (Year 11) course; Volume II contains items testing the most common Part 2 (Year 12) course. Both 'correct response' and 'incorrect response' type items are included in both volumes. The purchase of a single copy allows free reproduction within that educational ins- titution, thus individual test items may be used many times in a number of ways. Full details for use are included in each volume.
Volume II is to be published first, and will be available in September 1984. Volume I will be available for the start of the 1985 school year.
Biology Departments of all Australian secondary schools and tertiary educational institutions will receive information and ordering details in the near future. Any teachers wishing a personal mailing should write to ACER Advisory Services.
ACER Publications
Australian Education Index Vol. 27, No. 1, March 1984
Australian Education Index Vol. 27, No. 2, June 1984
ACER Research Monograph No. 23 Staying at High School in Victoria M. Batten, J. Ainley, H. Miller .... $9.95 ACER Research Monograph No. 24 Sex Bias in ASA T?
Raymond Adams... . ... $10.95 Australian Journal of Education No. 28, Vol. 1, April 1984
Career Development Inventory - Manual (Australian Adaptation)
Bulletin for Psychologists No. 35, May 1984 Supplied free to Psychologists
ACER Newsletter No. 51, Julv. 1984