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APPLIED CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY SUMMARY NOTES
Table of Contents
WEEK 2 – THE FAMILY (PART I) ... 1
WEEK 3 – THE FAMILY (PART 2) ... 6
WEEK 4 – ASSISTED REPRODUCTIE TECHNOLOGY AND PARENTING ... 12
WEEK 5 – PERINATAL MOOD DISORDERS, PARENTING AND CHILD OUTCOMES ... 19
WEEK 6 – CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT ... 25
WEEK 7 – CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE ... 32
WEEK 8 – PEERS ... 40
WEEK 9 – AGGRESSION AND BULLYING ... 42
WEEK 10 – MORAL DEVELOPMENT AND CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY... 46
WEEK 11 – PROSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT... 50
WEEK 12 – GENDER DEVELOPMENT ... 53
WEEK 2 – THE FAMILY (PART I)
The function of the family is to socialise the young → “socialisation refers to the process by which children acquire beliefs, motives, values and behaviours deemed significant and appropriate by older members of their society”
(Shaffer, 2005).
The family is a social system → “a family is ‘two or more persons related by birth, marriage, adoption, or choice’ who have emotional ties and responsibilities to each other” (Shaffer, 2005).
Views on family relationships have changed in recent years:
• Traditional nuclear families
• Gender-diverse two-parent families → more normative/socially acceptable in modern society as opposed to in the past
• Extended families for social support → more involved now with COVID and mother working
• Single parent families are more common/accepted now
• Co-parent – divorced families; these work best if parents mutually support each other
• Blended – children from different marriages, i.e. step/half siblings
Research shows that the quality of relationships within families is a more important predictor of child outcomes than family type.
• Few differences in adjustment between children living with same-sex couples and those living with opposite- sex couples.
Influence of parents on gender conformity
Gender nonconformity was found to be a strong predictor of later gender identity 5 years later through toy play (Farr et al., 2017). Parental sexual orientation was found to have no difference on gender-typed behaviour → gender typing appears to be similar, and predominantly gender-conforming, across early to middle childhood. There are lots of outside pressures (i.e. peers, media) which appear to have a stronger influence.
Transgender parents and children
There is sparce research on the topic of transgender parents. There are many divergent views on the impact this has on children. There is difficulty identifying transgender children in surveys. Gender fluidity is a difficult concept for schools to grasp.
The traditional view of gender identity as a binary concept has been challenged to include transgender and fluid identities. Children aged 3-5 years old who were socially transitioned transgender children were not confused about their gender – this shows that there is lots of flux with gender and that parents aren’t transmitting these values to their children; they’re learning it.
Transgender children were less likely to believe that their gender at birth matches their current gender – they have a more flexible attitude towards gender. The children and their siblings were also less likely to believe the gender
2 of other people is stable – this suggests more gender flexible parenting practice. There is no evidence of this affecting their mental health.
How do parents influence children?
Parents have direct and indirect influences.
• Direct effects – i.e. discipline and outcome
• Reciprocal effects – response of child affects the parent and vice versa; bidirectional approach. This is the best model for parenting effects.
• Indirect effects – e.g. mothers who have a supportive relationship with their husband are more sensitive in their interaction with their children. This is not measurable in a study but contributes to the effect. Additional effects that make the direct effect stronger – coeffects/additional effects or moderation
Harris – Do we assume what parents do impact children in a causal way? Three propositions:
1. Parental behaviours have no effect on the psychological characteristics that children will have as adults 2. Peer groups are the primary environmental influence on psychological functioning
3. Dyadic relationships are situation specific. Although they may give rise to powerful emotions, they produce only temporary changes in behaviour
Harris highlighted the importance of peer groups. But, a lot of peer group is influenced by parents and the environment that parents created/context. This is a weakness of Harris; the role of context needs to be included.
Theories about child-rearing practices
Theory About
Attachment theory
Recent advances include a larger role for the father (equally important significance in child’s life as the mother), which Bowlby originally stated was a minor role.
• Complimentary toles of mothers and fathers (grandparents)?
• Little evidence of hierarchical attachment and that it first occurs to mothers
• Fathers as assets and protectors in child welfare families
Attribution theory External and internal motivation. External is mainly incentives. Internal can be intrinsic, person attributions
Social cognitive theory
aka social learning theory. Bandura’s (1986) theory focuses on the development of self- regulatory control in the exercise of human agency. In the course of development, regulatory control shifts from mainly external control to self-regulatory control (Bussey & Bandura, 1999).
The mix of external- and self-control varies across the lifespan and across individuals.
• To what extent does behaviour become under self/internal control over development rather than being externally guided.
Sociocognitive influences
• Modelling – especially through social media
• Enactive experience – feedback on behaviours engaged in
• Direct tuition – told what to do
These influences operate through the various societal subsystems → parents, peers, media, educational institutions, occupational systems. Building up a repertoire of acceptable behaviour.
Sociocognitive regulators
What are the drivers that enable behaviour in certain contexts? Motivational factors:
• Social sanctions
• Self-sanctions
• Self-efficacy beliefs Self-regulatory processes:
3
• Self-observation → judgement processes → self-reaction
Internalisation process
How do kids internalise the rules and values of society?
• Both social cognitive theory and attribution theory have focused on the type of disciplinary procedures that promote internalisation → needed to discipline ourselves.
• Social cognitive theory focuses on self-regulatory processes rather than internalisation.
Appraising the techniques of socialisation
Parenting techniques/behaviours and potential effects on child. Severity of punishment often related to mood of parent/state of mind rather than child’s action.
Techniques for eliminating behaviour Potential effects on child
Verbal punishment Both upset, child stop while parent around. Not going to promote internalisation of behaviour. Not much different from physical punishment.
Physical punishment Avoid parents, not learning behaviours. Focus on fear of punishment, rather than why they were punished.
Extinction Not responding. Doesn’t work and requires escalation. Doesn’t teach rules or self- regulation
Time-out Has to be used in a way suitable for age group. Not really going to learn much. Puts control back on child/child-focused.
Withdrawal of love The worst effects on child. Parental love should be non-contingent. No self- regulatory purpose
Reasoning Best. Explaining why wrong. Child focuses on what they should do.
Developmentally appropriate.
Reinforcement of alternative desirable behaviours
Also best effects on child. Understanding what behaviour they should be doing instead.
Appraising the techniques of socialisation
• Important to remove the anticipation of reward.
• Rewarding achievement works.
• Transfer incentives from internal to external and vice versa removes motivation, no longer interested.
• Structuring of tasks is also important.
Techniques for strengthening behaviour
Material rewards i.e. treat, toy etc. Not good technique. Undermines intrinsic interest Social rewards Reward after. Tell why theyre being rewarded.
Verbal attributions Labelling child. Want to generalise across tasks. Need to highlight why/basis. Needs truth.
Direct instructions and maturity demands
Instruct what can do at child’s maturity level. Small steps to build up ability.
Factors that influence the effectiveness of disciplinary practices
• Important to understand the rule they are being punished for breaking so that they can self-regulate.
• Kochanska: negotiation = giving in, undermines ability to discipline child. Give and take allows firm enforcing Factors that influence the effectiveness of disciplinary practices
Link between behaviour and consequences
Problem with physical punishment – link not there. Focus more on consequences rather than rule.
Verbal reasoning Must be appropriate to child’s age Consistency Responding always the same
Avoid unnecessarily harsh discipline Harsh = focus on discipline rather than why/rule Age-appropriate demands Capabilities of child
Demands firmly enforced Not forcefully Encouragement for self-regulation
Discipline issues – physical punishment
