Original Research Article
Body physique and dominant somatotype in elite and low-profile athletes with different specializations
Boris Gutnik
a,*, Aurelijus Zuoza
b, Ilona Zuozien ė
b, Aleksandras Alekrinskis
b, Derek Nash
c, Sergei Scherbina
daPhysiologyDepartment,RussianStateMedicalResearchUniversitybyPyrogov,Moscow,Russia
bDepartmentofCoachingScience,LithuanianSportsUniversity,Kaunas,Lithuania
cDepartmentofNursing,UnitecInstituteofTechnology,Auckland,NewZealand
dAIRO-XXI,Moscow,Russia
article info
Articlehistory:
Received21January2014 Accepted2July2015 Availableonline31July2015
Keywords:
Somatotype Morphology Athletes Anthropometry Anthropometricindices
abstract
Backgroundandobjective: Somatotypingishelpfulinsportsinwhichthebodyshapecould influence the resultingperformance. The purpose of thisstudy was todetermine the somatotypeofhighprofileLithuanianathletesinkayaking, basketballandfootballand tocomparebetweendisciplinesandwithlowlevelsportsmenofthesameage.
Materialsandmethods: Atotalof72youngmalesportsmenagedfrom18to24yearswere dividedintothreegroups(kayakers,basketballandfootballplayers).Eachgroupcontained almostequalnumbersoflowlevelandelite,internationallevelsportsmen.Anthropometric measurementsoftheplayerswereusedtoestablishsomatotypes.
Results:The greatest difference was observed in the mesomorphic component ofelite kayakerscomparedtothelowprofilesportsmen.Mesomorphycouldalsobeusedtopredict sportability.Therangeofmesomorphyforelitefootballerswasfrom0to4.6,forbasketball playersfrom4.6to5.9,andforkayaking,from5.9andhigher.Individualgroupsofelite sportsmendisplayeddifferentmodesofsomatotype.Thekayakerswerepredominantly endomorphic;thebasketballplayersmostlyendomorphicandthefootballersmostoften ectomorphic.Nodistinguishablepatternsofsomatotypeweredisplayedbythelowlevel sportsmen.
Conclusions: Morphometriccharacteristicsoftheathlete'sbodyandthefractionalsomato- typecanbeusedasguidersandmarkersofthechosensportandmethodoftraining.
PeerreviewundertheresponsibilityoftheLithuanianUniversityofHealthSciences.
*Correspondingauthorat:PhysiologyDepartment,RussianStateMedicalResearchUniversitybyPyrogov,Ostrovitianovstr.1,117997 Moscow,Russia.
E-mailaddress:[email protected](B.Gutnik).
Availableonlineatwww.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
journal homepage:http://www.elsevier.com/locate/medici
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.medici.2015.07.003
1010-660X/#2015LithuanianUniversityofHealthSciences.ProductionandhostingbyElsevierSp.zo.o.Thisisanopenaccessarticle undertheCCBY-NC-NDlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction
Anthropometryhasbeenshowntoplayanimportantrolein athlete selection and performance criteria in sports. It is obvious thatdetermination of thesomatotype isespecially supportive insportsinwhichthe bodymayimpactonthe biomechanics of movement and the resulting performance [1,2].Investigationsofsomatotypesinelitesportsmenplayan importantroleinthestudyofthedynamicsofdevelopmentof aspecific shapeofthe human bodyunderthe influenceof variousintensivepurposefultrainingprocessesandcompeti- tiveperiods.Itiswellknownthattheanthropometricprofile mayindicatewhetheraplayerwouldbesuitabletoparticipate atthehighest levelinaspecificsport[3–7].Analysisofthe literature has shown that there is a lack of information explainingthedevelopmentalpatternofhighprofileathletes inrelationtodifferentexpressionsofthehumansomatotype.
Itisobviousthatthestructuralappearanceofaperson,or bodyshape,isdeterminedbyhisorhergenotypeasinfluenced bytheirenvironment[8–12].Thequantificationofmorpholog- icalcharacteristicsofhighprofileathletescanbeakeyaspect ofrelatingbodystructuretosportsperformance[13].
On the other sidethe quantified body physique of elite sportsmenhasbeenshowntoalterovertime[14].Analysisof thelatestliteraturecomparinganthropometricvariablesand somatotypesclearlyillustratesthatspecificfunctionalrequire- mentsproducedifferencesintheanthropometricvariablesof the human body [15]. Another study showed the essential difference in the anthropometrical portrait between highly qualified,intermediateandjuniorsurfers;however,itisdifficult to compare their somatotypes because of the large age difference between groups [16]. It is also difficult to make accurateconclusions onthemorphometricandsomatotypic characteristicsof eliteathletes dueto alack of consistency betweendifferentstudies,basedondatareceivedfromdifferent national groups of athletes and obtained during differing periods.Therefore,thereisagapintheliteratureintermsof determinationofbodyphysiqueandanthropometricaldiffer- encesofcontemporaryeliteLithuaniansportsmenaswellas betweeneliteandlowprofileathletesofthesameage.
Thefirstobjectiveof thestudywastodescribethebody physique of modern elite sportsmen involved in kayaking, basketball and football. A further objective was to study differences in somatotypes between elite and low profile athletesinvolvedinthesesports.
2. Materials and methods
Anthropometry and somatotype data were collected from 72youngmalesportsmenaged18–24years,whoweredivided
intothreegroups(kayakers,basketballandfootballplayers).
Eachgroupincludedlowerrankedsportsmen,11people,and 13 elite, highlyexperienced athletesperformingat interna- tionallevel.Thelowprofilesportsmenwhohadnoexceptional motorskillswerestudentsoftheLithuanianSportsUniversity.
Theywereselectedinarandomizedway.
Themeanageoftheelitesportsmenwere20.90.9years (kayakers), 24.01.1 (basketball players), and 18.80.6 (football players). Theelitekayakers andbasketball players wereparticipantsofunitedLithuanianteams,trainedforthe WorldCupin2010;theelitefootballplayerswereparticipants oftheFIFAU-20WorldCupin2011.Allparticipatingsports- menhadbeentrainingforatleast16hperweekformorethan 6years.Therewerecleardifferencesbetweenthebestandthe lowerrankedsportsmeninnumberoftraininghoursperweek ornumberofcompetitionscompleted.
TheresearchwasapprovedbytheLocalResearchCommit- teeoftheLithuanianSportsUniversity,Kaunas.Educationwas providedtoand informedconsent wasobtained from each participantbeforetheirentryintothestudy.Participantswere naive tothepurpose ofthe experiment,andnoneof them reportedanysensoryormotordeficits.
Theassessmentofsomatotypeinvolvedthemeasurement of 16 somatotypeparameters using standard methodsand licensed anthropometric instruments [17]. Anthropometric measurementsof theathleteswereperformed accordingto techniquessuggestedbytheAnthropometricStandardization Reference Manual [18]usingtheHeath-Carter protocol[19].
SomatotypeswerecalculatedusingtheHeath-Carterdecimal equations[19].
In somatotypecalculations,triceps,subscapular,supras- pinaleandcalfskinfoldthickness,humerusbicondylar,femur bicondylar, biceps circumference, calf circumference, and body weight and height were used. For a quantitative descriptionofeachsomatotypetheendometric,mesometric, andectometricindiceswerecalculated.Basicstatisticsused theStudentttestwithtwoindependentsamples.Additionally, discriminant analysis was performed using SPSS 10. This analysisisusefulininterpretingthepotentialdiscrepanciesin morphometric measures [20]. A P value of <0.05 was consideredassignificant.
3. Results
All athletes demonstrated a monomorphic somatotype, independentlyofsportsqualification.Eliteathletes,represen- tativesofallthreekindsofsport,showedpartialchangesin theirsomatotypeincomparisontobeginners(Table1).
Thegreatestchangeswereobservedinthemesomorphic indices with the largest change observed in elite kayakers comparedtothelowprofilesportsmen.Allsportsmenofthe Theresultsemphasizethenecessityforaspecificsomatotypetoreachahighprofilein theselectedareaofsportandthussupportmorphometricorientedstudies.Furtherstudies couldelucidatedifferentiationbyageandsex.
#2015LithuanianUniversityofHealthSciences.ProductionandhostingbyElsevier Sp.zo.o.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-NDlicense(http://creative- commons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
elite groups, unlike the groups of low profile sportsmen, demonstrated a greater variability of endomorphic and ectomorphicindices.Thesmallestspreadofdatawasrecorded formesomorphicindicesinthegroupoflowprofilefootball players(Table2).
The results of discriminant analysis showed that the successful prediction of a sportsman's ability to belong to the elite group may only be achieved using the index of mesomorphy.Therangeofmesomorphyforfootballplayers wasfrom0to4.6,forbasketballplayersfrom4.6to5.9,andfor kayaking5.9andhigher.Itwasalsofoundthatforhighprofile kayakersthemostsignificantindexwasendomorphic,forthe highprofile basketball playersit wasmesomorphicand for highprofilefootballplayersitwasectomorphic(Table3).For the low-level sportsmen, this method did not reveal any patternsforanyofthegroups.
4. Discussion
The objective of the research was to study trends of the individualsomatotype from thelevel of lowprofile toelite sportsmen.Itwasassumedthatdifferentfunctionalrequire- mentsin differentsportswould produce differencesinthe anthropometricvariablesamongthethreegroups.Thechosen sportswereselectedaccordingtothecriteriaofhighlevelsof physicalactivityandstrongpowerofperformance.Itiswell knownthatsomatotypingmethodsareespecially helpfulin
sports in which the body could directly influence the biomechanics ofmovementsand thusthe resultingperfor- mance [2]. There is alsothe suggestionof various athletes involved in these sports altering their body constitutional characteristics;height,weight,segmentalproportions,partic- ularlyfortheupperandlowerlimbs,andtheappearanceofthe optimal ratio in human physique. Any dissimilarity in kinanthropometric values between elite and low profile sportsmenofthesameagewerenoted.
Human somatotypes may be treated as very important health-related anthropometric indicators [21]. The latest references support the view that favorable somatotypical characteristicsleadtoexceptionalbiomechanicalandmeta- bolic efficiency in the selected sport [9]. According to the theoreticalbackgroundproposedbyHeathandCarter[19]the anthropometricalpatternorbodyphysiqueofeachindividual cannotbe totallycommitted toa certainsomatotype; each individualhasaspecificratioofthethreesomatotypesand this ratio is mediated by both genetic and environmental factors[9,11,12,22,23].
Themesomorphicindexreflectstheskeletalmusclemass inthehumanbody.Inmanykindsofsportthemesomorphic indexisdominant[22–25].Accordingtothelatestresultsof Turkish researchers [13]the averagesomatotype intrained elitesportsmenwasbalancedmesomorph,asoccurredinthis currentstudy.Thesameresultshavebeendemonstratedby otherauthors[26]whohaveconfirmedthatthesomatotypeof botheliteandlesstrainedfootballplayerswasdominatedby Table3–Discriminantanalysesforelitesportsmen.
Sport Endomorphictype Mesomorphictype Ectomorphictype Total
Kayaking 7 4 0 11
Basketball 4 6 1 11
Football 0 2 10 12
Kayaking(%) 63.6 36.4 0 100
Basketball(%) 36.4 54.5 9.1 100
Football(%) 0 16.7 83.3 100
Table2–Coefficientsofvariationfordifferentmorphometricindicesbydifferentgroupsofsportsmen.
Indices Lowprofile Elite
Kayaking Basketball Football Kayaking Basketball Football
Endomorphic 18.6 22.0 39.4 28.1 33.1 31.9
Mesomorphic 20.1 25.9 13.2 14.5 15.9 19.7
Ectomorphic 14.2 38 35 30.5 26.9 39.0
Table1–Morphometricindicesbydifferentgroupsofathletes.
Indices Low-profilesportsmen Elitesportsmen
Kayaking Basketball Football Kayaking Basketball Football
Endomorphic 3.380.63 2.770.61 2.641.04 3.520.99 3.141.03 2.410.77
Mesomorphic 3.820.77 4.091.06 3.570.47 6.200.90** 5.600.89 3.550.70
Ectomorphic 3.870.55 3.001.14 3.001.05 2.790.85* 3.090.83 3.331.30
Levelofsignificanceofthedifferencebetweenhighandlowprofilesportsmen:
* P<0.05.
** P<0.01.
themesomorphiccategory.Theconsiderableincreaseofthe mesomorphicindexforkayakersandbasketballplayerscanbe explained by the necessity of strong power contraction of manysynergeticskeletalmuscles[27,28].Thesametendency hasbeenillustratedinotherstudies[25,29].Alsoithasbeen shownthathighlytrainedkayakersdemonstratesignificantly greatermeasuresofmesomorphy[30].Thetrainingprocessof kayakers includes strong contractions of muscles of the shoulder,girthand other muscles of thebody that leadto increasedmusclemass[31].Inthiscasehypertrophyofmuscle fibersdevelopscausedbytheincreasingmassesofcontractile proteinsandconnectivetissueelements[32].
Itwasinteresting thatthediscriminateanalysesfor elite kayakersshowedthe endomorphicprofiletohavethemost predictivevalue.Thisfactisincontradictiontothefindingsof someotherauthorswhofoundthathighlytrainedkayakershad a more lean body portrait in comparison to the general population [14]. However, their observed contingent was specifically trained sprint paddlers, while kayakers in this studyweremostlytrainedforlongerdistances.Forthisreason,a greateramountofadiposetissueisprobablyrequiredtoprovide fuelforextensiveperiodsofaerobicenergyexpenditure.
Basketball also requires the development of jumping abilities, which are associated with the expansion of large musclesofthelowerextremities,pelvisandlumbarsegments [33]. It has been clearly shown that the mesomorphic componentincreasedtheheightoftheverticaljump[20].
Asfollowsfromtheresultsofdiscriminantanalysis,fora groupofhighprofilefootballplayerstheectomorphicindexis veryimportant. Nikolaidisandcoworkers[34],studyingthe body composition in young football players, demonstrated thatincomparisonwiththeage-matchedgeneralpopulation, participants exhibited higher stature and lower body mass index that suggest development of ectomorphy, and this patternhasalsobeenillustratedinthecurrentstudy.Itcanbe speculatedthatmodernfootballrequiresthedevelopmentofa stronger skeletal apparatus of the lower extremities. Each soccergameprovidesanumberofsmallandmoderatestrikes andstrainsofthebonysegmentsofthelowerextremitiesof theplayer.InotherwordsthissituationisdescribedbyWolff's lawthatisinterpretedas;abonebecomesstrongerandmore massiveatoptimalloadingrates[35,36].
Testingvolleyballplayers,Buśkoand coworkers[25]also demonstratedthattheectomorphicandmesomorphiccom- ponentsofbodyphysiquecorrelatedsignificantlywithvalues of maximal power measured during counter movement jumps.
It was interesting that the athletes of the elite groups, unlikethegroupsoflowprofilesportsmen,demonstrateda greatervariabilityofendomorphicandectomorphicindices.It isdifficulttoexplainthisphenomenon.Probablyitmaybedue tothe largevarietyof individual somatotyperatios ofhigh profileathleteswhobelongtothesamekindofsport.Hazir[26]
supportedthispointofview,testingelitefootballplayers.He supposedthathighlytrained athletesinmodernsportvary morewidelyintermsofdifferentanthropometricalvaluesand explainedthisvariationbytheinfluenceofthedifferentsport requirementsofthegame.
Thus,thisstudy,aswellasthoseofotherauthorshasfound different somatotype ratios at which sportsmen excel in
differentsports.Themorphometricdifferencesobtainedinthe experimentssuggesttheprobableobservationofamodifica- tion in morphometric phenotype of athletes asa result of intenseworkouts.Thisobservationgivesreasontobelievethat morphometric characteristics of the athlete's body and fundamentalvaluesofthefractional somatotypecharacter- istics can be used as markers for the chosen method of training.
Theresultsemphasizethenecessityforaspecificsomato- typetoreachahighprofileintheselectedareaofsportashas alsobeenstressedbyotherauthors[2,9,37].Furthermore,the resultsshowtheneedsandrequirementsforsuchmorpho- metric oriented studies in these and other sports withan importance of differentiation by age and sex. Thus it is probably determinative of an individual somatotype for kayaking,basketballandsoccer.
While the classic Heath Carter protocol is widely used nowadaysineliteandmasssports[38,39],futureexperimental work in this area is desirable to enrich data from other kinanthropometric approaches.Forinstancebodysizemea- surements may be advantageous to calculate vertical and circumferential proportionality (shapes) of the body which ought tobespecifictosomesports.Additional information about armlengths and armand hand span aswell as leg lengths would be furthermoreuseful for a largevariety of sport and athletic pursuits including; basketball, volleyball, soccer, andkayaking.AlsotheAndrogyny Index[40]which illustrates the relative widths of the shoulders and pelvis may bevaluable asan additional correlator of the level of masculinityandprobablymesomorphy.Itmayproveusefulto usebioelectricimpedanceexaminationthatindirectlydemon- stratestheamountof fat-freemasswithinthebody[41]or themeasurementofthehydrostaticweight[42]forthesame purpose.Itisalsopossibletoindirectlycalculatebodymuscle massusingthesimplyattainedgirthandskinfoldmeasure- ments[43].
Strengthsofthisstudyincludeanthropometricmeasure- mentsofelitesportsmenindifferentsportscodesthathave notpreviouslybeenperformedonthisscale.Thedesignofthe studyallowedcomparisonbetweenthedifferentcodes.
Thestudyalsohassomelimitations.Therehasbeenno opportunitytogatherlongitudinaldata.Thegeneralizabilityof the results is only likely to apply to Eastern European sportsmen.Itisanticipatedthatsportsmeninotherareasof the world may use different training regimes that will potentially alter their body physique. Future investigations couldextendthebreadthofthestudytoincludelowerprofile sportsmen in different countries and thus increase the generalizability of the results. All participants were males andsothedatadoesnotapplytofemales.Bothoftheselast limitationspointtoavenuesoffutureresearchthatcouldbe explored.
5. Conclusions
These results suggest withhigh probability that there isa developmental tendency of change in different aspects of morphometricphenotypesofselectedkindsofsportathletes.
These phenomena may be explained by the effects of
continuous intensive training and achievement of highly sport-definedshapes.
Theresultscan serve as a basis for more accurateand purposely focused management of the training process.
Morphometricparametersofthebodyandtheathlete'score valuesofthepartialsomatotypeindicescanbeusefulmarkers ofthecorrectnessofthechosencoachingtechniques.
Theresultsobtainedshowtheneedforsimilarstudiesin othersportswithagreaterdifferentiationofathletesinterms ofage,sex,andinitialindividualmorphometricindices.
Conflict of interest
Theauthorsstatenoconflictofinterest.
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