Australian Archaeology - CORE

Australian Archaeology

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Full Citation Details:

Cambell, J.B. 1979. Settlement patterns on offshore islands in

Northeastern Queensland. 'Australian Archaeology', no.9, 18-32.

S E T T L E M E N T P A T T E R N S ON O F F S H O R E I S L A N D S I N N O R T H E A S T E R N Q U E E N S L A N D

John

B.

C q b e Z Z

Study

area

For the purposes of this study the offshore islands in northeastern Queensland are taken as those lying between Bowen and Cairns. As a matter of convenience these islands are divided into 'major' and 'minor' islands, the major ones being at least lOkm or more in their greatest dimension and the minor ones less than that. This classification allows for an apparent bimodal dispersion in the relative size of the islands. The major islands include the following: Whitsunday and Hook (south-

east of Bowen), Gloucester (east of Bowen), Magnetic (north of Townsville), Great Palm (east of Ingham) and Hinchinbrook (south- east of Tully). Some archaeological finds are known from all of the major islands, and at least a few are known from many of the minor islands. However, none of the offshore islands in the study area, or for that matter anywhere in north Queensland, have had any really thorough archaeological surveys carried out. In addition

to my

fieldwork on the mainland in northeastern Queensland (see Campbell 1978 and 1979), I have concentrated thus far

principally on Hinchinbrook and Goold islands, and the results of this island research to date are shown on the map in Figure 1.

Both are high, mountainous islands, and both are now National Parks. This research is discussed further below.

The relationship between island size, latitude and traditional Aboriginal settlement patterns in Australia in general is still not completely clear, but unlike Kangaroo Island (South Australia) and most of the islands of Bass Strait, none of the major and few of the minor islands in the study area were completely unoccupied at the time of Aboriginal/~uropean contact (cf. Tindale 1974;

Jones 1976; and Fig.2 in this present paper). In fact all of the major and many of the minor islands right across northern

Australia were in use, though the intensity of use varied considerably from island to island, region to region (see also relevant papers in Allen, Golson and Jones 1977). Latitude, marine currents, carrying capacity, cultural variation etc. would all presumably have had something to do with the striking contrasts between northern and southern island Australia, as well as with the less striking local variations in offshore island settlement patterns. Within the study area the largest island, Hinchinbrook, was able to support an entire tribe on

a

permanent basis, the

'Bandjin' people (see Figs 1 and 2). The other islands in the

study area were also generally in frequent to constant use

in

the

so-called 'ethnographic present'.

Archaeol ogi c a l e v i dence

The only island excavations carried out so far in the study area are those which were done by an amateur during the Second World War in shell middens at Scraggy Point on Hinchinbrook Island

(Stephens 1945 and 1946; see also Fig.1 in the present paper). In addition to various sorts of littoral shells he mentions dugong, turtle and fish bones. And amongst the artefacts which he uncovered he reports the occurrence of stone flakes, stone axes and flaked bottle glass, though he does not report the occurrence of any stratigraphic evidence. He also describes equally briefly a few aspects of the stone tidal fish trap complex at Scraggy Point (Stephens 1946; see also Fig.3 in the present paper).

The only comprehensive synthesis of surface sites and isolated finds found so far on the islands and adjacent parts of the main- land in the study area is that compiled by Brayshaw (1977) as part of her doctoral work. Although her four excavations sites are rock shelters on the mainland, she did carry out two borings in one of the middens at Scraggy Point, the results of which are also reported in her thesis. My own fieldwork in the study area is largely since 1976.

A review of what is known in north Queensland and of what might eventually be found here is presented elsewhere (Campbell 1979) in relation to some of the apparent and possible patterns of ecological and cultural change in the late Quaternary of Australia and New Guinea. The only truly long archaeological sequence known so far in north Queensland is

that at

the '~arly Man' shelters at

Laura,

where evidence extending into the late Pleistocene has been uncovered (Wright 1971; Rosenfeld 1975).

One would expect that equally long or longer sequences would eventually be found both on the mainland and on some of the offshore islands, as well as perhaps underwater on former islands and former extensions of the mainland in what is now the Great Barrier Reef (in places this massive limestone area has many submerged caves; see Campbell 1979 as well as other authors in the Quaternary section of Henderson and Stephenson 1979). Work on the Quaternary palaeoecology and palaeogeography of at least certain parts of mainland and offshore north Queensland is much more advanced than any of the archaeological work, and we now have a fair idea of local changes

in

sea/land relationships, climatic patterns and vegetation (see again quaternary section in Henderson and Stephenson 1979). Adjacent to the study area,

~ynch's Crater in the Atherton Tableland provides a palaeobotanical hint of Aboriginal burning and clearing activities by about

40,000 to 35,000 radiocarbon years ago; this pollen sequence now extends back into the 'penultimate glacial' (see also Kershaw 1978). As I suggest in my review paper, it would be well worth- while to examine the sediments of ~ynch's Crater, Bromfield Swamp and other former Atherton craters for direct archaeological evidence of activities and artefacts. The latter could even include wooden artefacts.

Archaeological work on offshore islands elsewhere in north

Queensland is also extremely limited. Beaton (1978) reports the

results of a brief survey carried out on selected islands in the

n o r t h e r n Great B a r r i e r Reef. Vanderwal (1973) and Moore (1978) r e p o r t t h e r e s u l t s of t h e i r s e p a r a t e s u r v e y s and o c c a s i o n a l s m a l l soundings on s e l e c t e d T o r r e s S t r a i t i s l a n d s . Although o f r e l e v a n c e t o c o a s t a l r a t h e r t h a n o f f s h o r e i s l a n d work, i t i s a l s o important t o c i t e t h e f i e l d w o r k and c a r e f u l a n a l y s e s c a r r i e d o u t by B a i l e y (1977) on t h e e x t e n s i v e complex of s h e l l middens and mounds a t Weipa on t h e w e s t e r n s i d e of Cape York P e n i n s u l a , f o r h i s work i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r midden i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n g e n e r a l . However, most of t h e e v i d e n c e t o d a t e , whether from t h e s e o t h e r r e g i o n s o r from t h e o f f s h o r e i s l a n d s i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a r e a , a p p e a r s t o b e r e l a t e d t o c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s . That i s , almost e v e r y t h i n g found s o f a r seems t o belong t o t h e l a t e Holocene, and a l l o f t h e r a d i o c a r b o n age e s t i m a t e s o b t a i n e d s o f a r f o r o f f s h o r e i s l a n d and c o a s t a l s i t e s a r e younger t h a n 2000 y e a r s ago.

Ethnographic evidence

Ethnographic d a t a on t h e s t u d y a r e a a r e a l s o v e r y l i m i t e d and i n most c a s e s depends on incomplete o r even i n a c c u r a t e

h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s . Some of t h i s i s summarised i n T i n d a l e (1974), Dixon (1972 and 1976) and Brayshaw (1977). P a r t o f t h e r e l e v a n t p o r t i o n of T i n d a l e ' s Australia-wide map i s reproduced h e r e i n Figure 2 w i t h a l l of h i s t r i b a l b o u n d a r i e s changed t o broken l i n e s a s t h e y a r e o n l y approximate and w i t h s p e l l i n g s g i v e n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e A u s t r a l i a n I n s t i t u t e of A b o r i g i n a l S t u d i e s ' v e r s i o n . There i s s t i l l c o n s i d e r a b l e d e b a t e o v e r t h e p r e c i s e names ( i f any) and p r e c i s e t e r r i t o r i e s o f a l l o f t h e s e t r i b e s , b u t F i g u r e 2 s e r v e s a t l e a s t a s a g e n e r a l g u i d e . F i g u r e 2 a l s o shows q u i t e c l e a r l y the-marked d i f f e r e n c e between i n l a n d and

c o a s t a l t r i b e s i n t h e comparative s i z e o f t h e i r g e n e r a l t e r r i t o r i e s . The d i f f e r e n c e i s presumably r e l a t e d i n p a r t t o d i f f e r e n t c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t i e s , t h e c o a s t a l and o f f s h o r e i s l a n d a r e a s h a v i n g g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n o r n e a r t h e r i c h r a i n f o r e s t and mangrove ecosystems of t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e s t u d y a r e a ( s e e F i g s 1 and 2 ) .

One of t h e e a r l i e s t a c c o u n t s of t h e a r e a i s t h a t by Carron (1849), b o t a n i s t on t h e Kennedy E x p e d i t i o n . He p r o v i d e s a

t a n t a l i s i n g d e s c r i p t i o n of some of t h e p e o p l e and t h e i r c a m p s i t e s i n t h e Rockingham Bay a r e a . Curr (1886-89) i s a n A u s t r a l i a - w i d e

' e t h n o g r a p h i c ' survey which o f t e n t o u c h e s on t h e s t u d y a r e a , b u t which i s patchy and o f t e n based merely on h e a r s a y . It i s C u r r u n f o r t u n a t e l y who i s one of t h e few s o u r c e s on t h e Hinchinbrook I s l a n d people. The c l a s s i c e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d y i n t h e r e g i o n i s t h a t by Roth (1901-10) on t h e 'Malanbara' (= T i n d a l e ' s ' ~ u l n g a i ' ) of t h e T u l l y River. Indeed, Roth's work i s one of t h e few t r u l y d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t s a v a i l a b l e f o r any of t h e t r i b e s i n t h e s t u d y a r e a , though i t i s more a l i s t of a r t e f a c t s and 'customs' t h a n a p r o p e r e t h n o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s i n t h e c u r r e n t s e n s e , and i t i s concerned w i t h a c o a s t a l r a t h e r than o f f s h o r e i s l a n d people. The

' ~ j i r u ' of Dunk I s l a n d a r e d e s c r i b e d i n a more u n p r o f e s s i o n a l way by B a n f i e l d (1908), who a l s o comments on t h e f i s h i n g s t r a t e g i e s

o f t h e ' B a n d j i n ' o f H i n c h i n b r o o k ( B a n f i e l d 1 9 0 9 ) . J o n e s (1961) b r i n g s t o g e t h e r a q u i t e d e t a i l e d s y n t h e s i s o f t h e p a t t e r n of A b o r i g i n a l / E u r o p e a n c o n t a c t and change on t h e o f f s h o r e i s l a n d s and t h e a d j a c e n t m a i n l a n d p r i n c i p a l l y i n t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e s t u d y a r e a . And f i n a l l y , C o l l i v e r (1978) i s one o f t h e more r e c e n t a t t e m p t s t o p u l l t o g e t h e r what i s known of t h e ' B a n d j i n ' , t h o u g h f r a n k l y h e r e a d s l i t t l e b e t t e r t h a n Curr (1886-89):

None o f t h e above s o u r c e s i s o f much h e l p when a t t e m p t i n g t o r e c o n s t r u c t f u l l y t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s on t h e i s l a n d s , o r f o r t h a t m a t t e r on t h e m a i n l a n d .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , most o f t h e t r i b e s shown on F i g u r e 2 no l o n g e r e x i s t , and t h e way o f l i f e of t h e few t h a t do s u r v i v e a s r e c o g n i s a b l e g r o u p s i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t now. None of t h e o r i g i n a l o f f s h o r e i s l a n d g r o u p s s u r v i v e s a s a d i s t i n c t e n t i t y , and G r e a t Palm I s l a n d i s t h e o n l y o f f s h o r e i s l a n d i n t h e s t u d y a r e a s t i l l i n h a b i t e d by a p r e d o m i n a n t l y A b o r i g i n a l p o p u l a t i o n . The p r e s e n t G r e a t Palm I s l a n d p e o p l e a r e descended i n g e n e r a l from a mix o f i n d i v i d u a l s b r o u g h t from v a r i o u s t r i b e s a l l o v e r Queensland, t h o u g h a t l e a s t a few a r e descended from some of t h e o r i g i n a l

'Wulgurukaba' t r i b e a s w e l l a s from n e i g h b o u r i n g t r i b e s o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g d i s t r i c t . On t h e mainland t h e a r e a which s t i l l h a s some g r o u p s l i v i n g on o r n e a r t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l l a n d s and s p e a k i n g some o f t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l l a n g u a g e s i s r o u g h l y from Ingham t o C a i r n s and i n l a n d t o Ravenshoe, w i t h of c o u r s e q u i t e a few g a p s and l i t t l e o r no o f f i c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n ( s e e Dixon 1972 a n d 1 9 7 6 ) . These a r e t h e r a i n f o r e s t o r former r a i n f o r e s t p e o p l e s o f t h e t r o p i c a l n o r t h e a s t . F u r t h e r e t h n o g r a p h i c and l i n g u i s t i c work would c e r t a i n l y b e w o r t h w h i l e , i n d e e d i s u r g e n t l y d e s i r e d by some o f t h e e l d e r l y members of t h e s e groups. My PhD s t u d e n t , Mrs Dorothy J o n e s , i s working w i t h t h e 'Malanbara' and 'Giramaygan' (= T i n d a l e ' s ' G u l n g a i ' and 'Keramai', r e s p e c t i v e l y ) w i t h whom s h e h a s had a l o n g - s t a n d i n g and c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p

( s e e a l s o J o n e s 1 9 6 1 ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o c o m p i l i n g a thorough e t h n o g r a p h y and t e s t i n g Roth (1901-10), s h e i s r e c o r d i n g and a n a l y s i n g i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e i r b e l i e f s y s t e m s and t h e impact o f European A u s t r a l i a n s o c i e t y on t h o s e . I am a l s o working w i t h t h e s e two g r o u p s , though my r e s e a r c h i s more e t h n o a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d h a s o n l y b e e n s i n c e 1976. A f a i r amount of i n f o r m a t i o n which i s r e l e v a n t a t l e a s t i n d i r e c t l y t o t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g o f f s h o r e i s l a n d s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s i s b e i n g

c o l l e c t e d a s w e l l , b u t most of i t a w a i t s p r o p e r a n a l y s i s .

Hinchinbrook I s l a n d evidence

C e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f t h e p a t t e r n which i s emerging i n t h e H i n c h i n b r o o k d i s t r i c t may b e s e e n i n F i g u r e 1. Of t h e s i t e s found s o f a r on H i n c h i n b r o o k I s l a n d i t s e l f , 95% ( o r 1 8 o u t of 1 9 ) a r e c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e u s e o f m a r i n e and l i t t o r a l r e s o u r c e s . Only one s i t e , a s m a l l r o c k s h e l t e r , i s known s o f a r i n t h e i n t e r i o r , and a s i t h a s a few l i t t o r a l s h e l l s ( s e e

C o l l i v e r 1 9 7 8 ) , i t i s a t l e a s t i n d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e u s e o f t h e s e a a s w e l l . Of t h e t o t a l o f 19 s i t e s , 53% ( o r 1 0

s i t e s ) a r e t i d a l f i s h t r a p s and 42% ( o r 8) a r e l i t t o r a l s h e l l middens ( t h e o t h e r 5% i s accounted f o r by t h e r o c k s h e l t e r ) . Although t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l i t t o r a l s i t e s on Hinchinbrook may r e f l e c t t h e dominant s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s and l a n d / s e a u s e systems, t h e absence of s i t e s i n t h e mountainous i n t e r i o r o f t h e i s l a n d i s d o u b t l e s s more a p p a r e n t t h a n r e a l , a s n e a r l y a l l surveys t h u s f a r have c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e s h o r e s of t h e i s l a n d . The s o r t s of s i t e s which might o c c u r on t h e h i g h e r p a r t s o f Hinchinbrook could i n c l u d e c a m p s i t e s , p a i n t e d rock s h e l t e r s , b o r a grounds, q u a r r i e s e t c . Regarding t h e l a t t e r , a d e f i n i t e q u a r r y f o r c l e a r q u a r t z h a s y e t t o be p i n p o i n t e d , though i t i s t h o u g h t t h a t Hinchinbrook was one o f t h e main s o u r c e s o f c l e a r q u a r t z f o r neighbouring t r i b e s a s f a r away a s t h e Townsville d i s t r i c t ( s e e Campbell 1978 on o c c u r r e n c e a t T u r t l e Rock; s e e a l s o Brayshaw 1977 on wider p a t t e r n ) . D e f i n i t e exposures o f c l e a r q u a r t z a r e known on t h e h i g h e r p a r t s o f Hinchinbrook. But r e g a r d i n g t h e g e n e r a l s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n , a s i s s u g g e s t e d by Jones (1961) and C o l l i v e r (1978), t h e i s l a n d ' s i n t e r i o r may normally have been used l e s s f r e q u e n t l y t h a n i t s f r i n g e s . T h i s would make r e a s o n a b l e e c o l o g i c a l s e n s e a s w e l l , though i t h a s y e t t o be t e s t e d thoroughly.

Most of t h e t i d a l f i s h t r a p s ( e i g h t o u t o f t h e t e n now known) on Hinchinbrook were found a n d / o r r e l o c a t e d i n J u l y 1978 d u r i n g a one-day a e r i a l survey which was o r g a n i s e d j o i n t l y by James Cook U n i v e r s i t y and t h e Royal A u s t r a l i a n Army. A h e l i c o p t e r was u s e d f o r t h i s o p e r a t i o n w i t h g r e a t s u c c e s s . A l l o f t h e M i s s i o n a r y Bay f i s h t r a p s were l o c a t e d and photographed, t h e Scraggy P o i n t f i s h t r a p s were photographed i n much g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h a n had e v e r been accomplished b e f o r e , a n o t h e r t r a p was l o c a t e d and photographed 3km s o u t h e a s t of Scraggy P o i n t , t h e Ramsay Bay middens were photographed, and t h e rugged i n t e r i o r was scanned from b o t h s i d e s and t r a v e r s e d from Zoe Bay t o t h e west.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y i n scanning and t r a v e r s i n g t h e i n t e r i o r no d e f i n i t e rock s h e l t e r s were s i g h t e d , b u t some p o s s i b l e overhangs were n o t e d .

F i g u r e 3 i s a drawing from an e a r l i e r a e r i a l photograph of Scraggy P o i n t which I took i n August 1976 from a s m a l l p l a n e d u r i n g one of t h e James Cook U n i v e r s i t y Dugong Survey r u n s . It i s an o b l i q u e view a t h i g h t i d e , and o n l y t h e h i g h e s t ( ? y o u n g e s t ) s u r v i v i n g w a l l s a r e v i s i b l e . Even s o , a s may b e seen t h e t r a p system i s q u i t e e x t e n s i v e and q u i t e complex. Much of i t i s covered w i t h mangroves. The b e s t s u r v i v i n g w a l l s a r e o f t e n a b o u t 0.5 t o 0.8m h i g h and a r e p r e s e r v e d l a r g e l y owing t o f a i r l y

thorough cementation by rock o y s t e r s . There i s a s i m i l a r t r a p system, l e s s w e l l p r e s e r v e d , t o t h e n o r t h w e s t on t h e o t h e r s i d e of Page's Creek. P a g e ' s Creek i s t h e c r e e k shown a t t h e t o p o f Figure 3; f u r t h e r i n l a n d (about 200m) i t h a s permanently f l o w i n g f r e s h w a t e r , though of c o u r s e i n t h e a r e a shown i n t h e view i t i s s a l i n e .

There a r e a l s o remains of what a p p e a r t o b e e a r l i e r f i s h t r a p systems a t Scraggy P o i n t w i t h l i n e s r u n n i n g beneath t h e more r e c e n t ones and w i t h t r a c e s of some r u n n i n g out beyond t h e lowest l e v e l of low t i d e . These o l d e r systems were photo- graphed i n J u l y 1978 a t low w a t e r w i t h a -0.3m t i d e , and t h e

r e s u l t a n t a e r i a l photographs a r e s t i l l b e i n g a n a l y s e d . How o l d t h e o l d e s t of t h e s e s t o n e l i n e s might b e h a s y e t t o b e

determined, b u t some could d a t e from a time o f s l i g h t l y lower s e a o r land l e v e l s . It i s planned t o a t t e m p t a s e l e c t i o n o f s m a l l soundings when t h e t i d e i s lowest i n o r d e r t o r e c o r d t h e depth of t h e bottom of t h e w a l l s and t o o b t a i n samples of t h e i r rock o y s t e r ' m o r t a r ' f o r radiocarbon age e s t i m a t e s . Some o f t h e o l d e r w a l l s could conceivably d a t e from a s much a s 6000 t o 8000 radiocarbon y e a r s BP, e s p e c i a l l y when one c o n s i d e r s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o l d e s t age e s t i m a t e f o r t h e base o f mangrove d e p o s i t s on Hinchinbrook i s 7130 2 150 BP (GaK-4898, Hopley and Murtha 1975;

s e e a l s o Hopley i n Henderson and Stephenson 1979). It i s a l s o planned t o a t t e m p t soundings a t some o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s of younger and o l d e r w a l l s i n o r d e r t o r e c o r d t h e i r s t r a t i g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l .

The t o t a l a r e a of t h e Scraggy P o i n t f i s h t r a p complex i s enormous: about 20,000m2 o r more, n o t l e s s . Although i t d o u b t l e s s r e q u i r e d a g r e a t e f f o r t t o b u i l d and was b u i l t and r e b u i l t o v e r many g e n e r a t i o n s , i t s a c t u a l o p e r a t i o n was p r o b a b l y h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t . It i n c l u d e s l o o p s , p o o l s , b r e a k w a t e r s and f u n n e l s and i s c l e a r l y designed t o t a k e advantage of t h e b e h a v i o u r of v a r i o u s s p e c i e s of f i s h . S p e a r s , b a s k e t s , scoops e t c . would presumably have been used a c c o r d i n g t o s p e c i e s , s i t u a t i o n and need. These t r a p systems would a l s o have p r o v i d e d many s p e c i e s of mollusc, c r u s t a c e a n e t c . And i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e rock o y s t e r s were i n t e n t i o n a l l y i n t r o d u c e d b o t h t o keep t h e w a l l s t o g e t h e r and t o p r o v i d e an e x t r a s o u r c e of food. Of c o u r s e , whether one can push t h i s n o t i o n f u r t h e r t o t h a t o f some s o r t o f f i s h farm i s a n o t h e r m a t t e r a l t o g e t h e r . But a t l e a s t c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f i c i e n c y i s s u g g e s t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Hinchinbrook t r i b e o f t e n fed t h e s t a r v i n g European s e t t l e r s i n t h e e a r l y d a y s of t h e Cardwell township j u s t a c r o s s Rockingham Bay on t h e mainland ( s e e Jones 1961). And though t h e y were each b u i l t on a s m a l l e r s c a l e than t h o s e a t Scraggy P o i n t , i n B a n f i e l d ' s o p i n i o n t h e Missionary Bay f i s h t r a p s were h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t as w e l l ( s e e B a n f i e l d 1909). Each of t h e seven Missionary Bay t r a p s i s a f u n n e l system s i m i l a r t o t h a t on t h e l e f t - h a n d s i d e o f F i g u r e 3, and each seems t o s t a n d a l o n e .

The s h e l l middens on Hinchinbrook v a r y q u i t e a l o t , b u t none a r e enormous a s s u c h , s a y when compared w i t h t h o s e a t Weipa ( c f . B a i l y 1977). The Zoe Bay middens found s o f a r a r e low, s c a t t e r e d and p o o r l y d e f i n e d . The Leefe Peak middens a r e more compact, c o n s i s t almost e n t i r e l y o f s h e l l s and a r e a b o u t

1.5m t h i c k . They were probably much more e x t e n s i v e o r i g i n a l l y , but t h e y l o s t many tonnes of s h e l l s between t h e World Wars t o a l o c a l e n t r e p r e n e u r who t r i e d t o p r o c e s s them a s f e r t i l i s e r f o r t h e cane farms a t Ingham ( s e e Jones 1961). And now a wet season creek i s g r a d u a l l y e r o d i n g away what i s l e f t o f t h e

Leefe Peak middens. S t r a t i f i e d s h e l l samples have been c o l l e c t e d from one of t h e exposed c r e e k s e c t i o n s , and t h e s e a r e t o b e d a t e d by t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Sydney Radiocarbon L a b o r a t o r y . The Ramsay Bay middens a r e a l s o f a i r l y w e l l d e f i n e d , and t h e y seem t o have t h e h i g h e s t number of s t o n e a r t e f a c t s e r o d i n g o u t when compared with t h e o t h e r Hinchinbrook middens. The Scraggy

P o i n t middens v a r y from s c a t t e r e d t o r e a s o n a b l y w e l l d e f i n e d . T h e r e a r e p r o b a b l y many more middens i n t h e v i c i n i t y of Scraggy P o i n t , b u t I h a v e n o t y e t been a b l e t o r e l o c a t e a l l of t h o s e c l a i m e d by S t e p h e n s (1945 and 1 9 4 6 ) . I n f a c t i n g e n e r a l t h e r e a r e p r o b a b l y many more middens y e t t o be found on Hinchinbrook.

C e r t a i n l y a l l o f t h o s e known would b e w o r t h e x c a v a t i n g , and t h e e x c a v a t i o n o f a t l e a s t a s e l e c t i o n would p r o b a b l y r e v e a l a much more d e t a i l e d p i c t u r e of l o c a l and s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n ' B a n d j i n ' s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s .

Go01 d I s 1 ands e v i dence

The t i d a l f i s h t r a p complex on Goold I s l a n d i s a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y c o v e r e d by s h i f t i n g beach s a n d s and mangrove muds and s i l t s . I t c o n s i s t s o f a t l e a s t one f u n n e l s y s t e m and a few l o o p s , p o o l s and s t r a i g h t l i n e s . The a r e a o f t h e Goold t r a p i s a b o u t 4000m2 o r a b o u t 20% t h a t o f t h e Scraggy P o i n t complex on

H i n c h i n b r o o k . As a t S c r a g g y P o i n t , t h e Goold complex i s l o c a t e d a t t h e mouth o f a f r e s h w a t e r c r e e k . T h i s c r e e k n o r m a l l y f l o w s f o r a t l e a s t 1 0 months e a c h y e a r .

U n t i l t h e m i d d l e o f t h e l a s t c e n t u r y t h e r e were a p p a r e n t l y f a i r l y l a r g e a n d n e a r l y permanent ' B a n d j i n ' camps on Goold. These w e r e b o t h n e a r t h e f i s h t r a p and n e a r t h e s h e l l midden shown on F i g u r e 1. The midden i s now s c a t t e r e d , overgrown and n o t v e r y c l e a r l y d e f i n e d , and t h e p r e c i s e l o c a t i o n s of t h e camps a r e d i f f i c u l t t o p i n p o i n t a s t h e y a r e overgrown a s w e l l . These camps s u p p o s e d l y h a d f a i r l y l a r g e h u t s and many o c c u p a n t s . Goold became a f r e q u e n t w a t e r i n g p l a c e f o r p a s s i n g Europeans f o r a number o f d e c a d e s b e f o r e Cardwell was founded, b u t t r o u b l e e v e n t u a l l y b r o k e o u t when Europeans t r i e d t o t a k e f i s h w i t h o u t t h e p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e Goold I s l a n d e r s ( s e e J o n e s 1 9 6 1 ) . Normally p e a c e f u l e x c h a n g e s o f food and a r t e f a c t s t o o k p l a c e b e f o r e t h a t v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t , b u t r e l a t i o n s t h e n d e t e r i o r a t e d a f t e r w a r d s .

R e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f ' B a n d j i n ' s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s

A t e n t a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of ' B a n d j i n ' s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s p r o v i d e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g c o n t r a s t between H i n c h i n b r o o k and Goold, m a j o r a n d m i n o r i s l a n d s r e s p e c t i v e l y . Hinchinbrook was d e f i n i t e l y a b l e t o s u p p o r t a c o m p a r a t i v e l y l a r g e permanent p o p u l a t i o n , though t h e e x a c t p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s remain u n c e r t a i n . C e r t a i n l y t h e H i n c h i n b r o o k p o p u l a t i o n would have v a r i e d i n s i z e , b u t i t s f l u c t u a t i o n s may h a v e c e n t r e d round a b o u t 400-600 p e o p l e a t l e a s t . As a m i n o r i s l a n d w i t h f a v o u r a b l e r e s o u r c e s and a r e a s o n a b l y c o n v e n i e n t l o c a t i o n , Goold was a b l e t o s u p p o r t a s m a l l e r b u t n e a r l y permanent p o p u l a t i o n which when p r e s e n t may h a v e numbered a s much a s 50-100 p e o p l e . L a t e i n t h e d r y s e a s o n e a c h y e a r t h e Goold I s l a n d e r s would have r e t r e a t e d presumably t o t h e M i s s i o n a r y Bay a r e a o f Hinchinbrook ( s e e a l s o J o n e s 1961).

The mainland t e r r i t o r y of t h e 'Bandjin' ( s e e F i g s 1 and 2) was used perhaps l e s s f r e q u e n t l y and may have s e r v e d m a i n l y f o r c o n t a c t s and exchange w i t h o t h e r t r i b e s , a s a p p a r e n t l y was t h e c a s e a f t e r i n i t i a l European s e t t l e m e n t i n t h e d i s t r i c t .

Most of t h e known s i t e s on Hinchinbrook and Goold a r e n e a r e i t h e r mangroves o r r a i n f o r e s t s . , A few a r e l o c a t e d n e a r s c l e r o p h y l l r e s o u r c e s a s w e l l . But t h e main emphasis i s on t h e s e a and l i t t o r a l r e s o u r c e s . T h i s p a t t e r n i s c l e a r i n F i g u r e 1, b u t a s h a s a l r e a d y been p o i n t e d o u t , many more s u r v e y s a r e

needed i n t h e i n t e r i o r of Hinchinbrook and i n d e e d i n t h e i n t e r i o r of Goold a s w e l l . But even s o , i t may b e assumed t h a t most o f t h e 'Bandjin' main camps were e i t h e r n e a r t h e s e known s i t e s o r elsewhere n e a r t h e s h o r e s and c r e e k s . It might a l s o b e assumed t h e t h e main camps were sometimes q u i t e l a r g e ( i . e . 50-100 p e o p l e o r more). The i n t e r i o r of Hinchinbrook (and p e r h a p s Goold) presumably had important ceremonial s i t e s , q u a r r i e s e t c . , b u t i t was o t h e r w i s e g e n e r a l l y used l e s s o f t e n . Some of t h e f i s h t r a p p a t t e r n s themselves may have been p a r t l y c e r e m o n i a l o r m y t h i c a l i n o u t l i n e . And r e g a r d i n g t h e u s e of i n t e r i o r , l i t t o r a l and marine r e s o u r c e s , t h e r e may have been a d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r based i n p a r t on s e x and a g e , b u t whether i t was p r e c i s e l y l i k e what Meehan (1977) d e s c r i b e s f o r t h e 'Anbarra' o f c o a s t a l Arnhem Land, f o r i n s t a n c e , remains u n c e r t a i n . I n any c a s e , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and v a r i e t y of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and t h e t r i b e s concerned a r e c e r t a i n l y n o t i d e n t i c a l , though t h e comparison i s n o n e t h e l e s s worth making, e s p e c i a l l y once d e t a i l e d a n a l y s e s o f some of t h e

'Bandjin' middens have been c a r r i e d o u t .

Amongst t h e known c l u s t e r s of sites Scraggy P o i n t might a t l e a s t be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a 'base-camp' complex a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n

' e x t r a c t i v e - s i t e ' complex i n t h e s e n s e of Jarman (1972), though h i s model i s n o t f u l l y a p p r o p r i a t e h e r e . As may b e s e e n i n F i g u r e 1, I have t a k e n t h e l i b e r t y of drawing h i s s t a n d a r d lOkm r a d i u s c i r c l e and t h e corresponding a p p r o p r i a t e two hour c o n t o u r from Scraggy P o i n t by f o o t o r small b o a t . Such a s i t e t e r r i t o r y would c r o s s many d i f f e r e n t b u t complementary ecosystems. Of c o u r s e j u s t w i t h i n lkm of Scraggy P o i n t t h e r e i s q u i t e s u f f i c i e n t v a r i e t y and abundance t o s u p p o r t a f a i r l y l a r g e encampment on a more permanent b a s i s . I n F i g u r e 1 I have a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t Brayshaw's Kennedy s h e l t e r s (1977) i n t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g ' ~ e r a m a i ' ( o r 'Giramaygan') t e r r i t o r y r e p r e s e n t a p o s s i b l e c o a s t a l r a n g e base-camp complex.

The frequency of 'Bandjin' c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s remains u n c e r t a i n , b u t judging from comments i n Dixon (1972 and 1976) and my own c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h s u r v i v i n g 'Gulngai' ( o r 'Malanbara') and 'Keramai', c o n t a c t was g e n e r a l l y more common up and down t h e c o a s t from n o r t h of T u l l y t o s o u t h of Ingham, t h a n a c r o s s t o Hinchinbrook and Goold. Exchange o r t r a d e c e r t a i n l y took p l a c e , b u t t h e ' ~ a n d j i n ' g e n e r a l l y d i d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e a s much, f o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e wooden sword f i g h t s which t h e mainland r a i n f o r e s t t r i b e s had. But t h e ' ~ a n d j i n ' d i d have g e n e r a l l y b e t t e r w a t e r c r a f t , and c o n s i d e r i n g how l o n g t h e y have been gone from Hinchinbrook and Goold, i t i s r e a l l y v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o a s c e r t a i n p r e c i s e l y what t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s of i n t e r t r i b a l c o n t a c t were l i k e .

For how many m i l l e n n i a t h e ' B a n d j i n ' o c c u p i e d t h e i r t e r r i t o r y i s a l s o u n c e r t a i n . I f p e r c h a n c e t h e y were always i n t h i s a r e a s i n c e sometime i n t h e l a t e P l e i s t o c e n e , t h e n t h e y would have found i t n e c e s s a r y t o a d a p t t o major changes i n s e a l e v e l and v e g e t a t i o n . I n F i g u r e s 1 and 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y , I have drawn t h e -20m and -200111 u n d e r w a t e r c o n t o u r s . These might b e t a k e n a s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e a p p r o x i m a t e c o a s t l i n e s a t a b o u t 9000 BP and 18,000 BP, r e s p e c t i v e l y

( a c t u a l l y -130m would p r o b a b l y be a b e t t e r e s t i m a t e o f t h e c . 1 8 , 0 0 0 BP c o a s t l i n e , b u t t h e p o s i t i o n on a map t h e s c a l e o f F i g u r e 2 would n o t b e much d i f f e r e n t ; s e e a l s o Campbell 1979 and o t h e r Q u a t e r n a r y p a p e r s i n Henderson and Stephenson 1 9 7 9 ) . That some o f t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n Queensland r a i n f o r e s t p e o p l e s have been more o r l e s s i n t h e i r p r e s e n t a r e a s f o r a t l e a s t a b o u t 15,000 y e a r s now seems q u i t e c e r t a i n . T h e i r semi-mythical s t o r i e s i n c l u d e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s , c h a n g i n g v e g e t a t i o n p a t t e r n s and c h a n g i n g s e a l e v e l s which c o u l d o n l y a p p l y t o c o n d i t i o n s between a b o u t 10,000 and 40,000 BP ( s e e Dixon 1972 and 1 9 7 6 ; Campbell 1 9 7 9 ) . But t h e h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l maritime a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e ' B a n d j i n ' might s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y s h i f t e d back and f o r t h w i t h c h a n g i n g s e a l e v e l s , u n l i k e t h e i r mainland neigh- b o u r s .

Of c o u r s e , w h e t h e r we would e v e n t u a l l y be a b l e t o l o c a t e f i s h t r a p s , middens e t c . which a r e now f u l l y u n d e r w a t e r a l o n g t h e f o r m e r c o a s t l i n e s o f what i s now t h e G r e a t B a r r i e r Reef i s a n o t h e r m a t t e r a l t o g e t h e r . Beaton (1978) i s s c e p t i c a l of t h i s s o r t of i d e a i n g e n e r a l , b u t j u d g i n g from what I have s e e n on Hinchinbrook, I t h i n k one c o u l d f i n d t r a c e s o f f i s h t r a p s a t l e a s t . And a s I h a v e a l r e a d y s a i d , I t h i n k t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r u n d e r w a t e r cave a r c h a e o l o g y i s e v e n g r e a t e r ( s e e a g a i n Campbell 1 9 7 9 ) . The F r e n c h , f o r i n s t a n c e , have developed e l a b o r a t e underwater cave e x c a v a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s f o r t h e i r submerged l a t e P l e i s t o c e n e s i t e s ( e . g . s e e B o n i f a y 1 9 7 0 ) , and w i t h c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s I t h i n k t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s would b e q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r work i n t h e B a r r i e r Reef. Such r e s e a r c h would t h e n a l l o w u s t o s t u d y o f f - s h o r e and c o a s t a l s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s i n much g r e a t e r d e p t h a g a i n s t t h e i r l o n g - t e r m panorama o f c u l t u r a l - e c o l o g i c a l a d a p t a t i o n s .

Acknowl

edqements

I s h o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k t h e f o l l o w i n g i n d i v i d u a l s f o r t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e w i t h t h i s r e s e a r c h : D r Helen Brayshaw, M r S i d French, C a p t a i n Les H i d d e n s , M r s Dorothy J o n e s , P r o f e s s o r George Kearney, M r J o e K i n j u n , M r Danny McBride, M r Alan Pomeroy, Major Mike R e y n o l d s , D r A l i s t e r S p a i n , MS Kate S u t c l i f f e and M r John T a y l o r . A l l v e r y k i n d l y o f f e r e d u s e f u l s u g g e s t i o n s , though I o f c o u r s e am r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o p i n i o n s e x p r e s s e d i n t h i s p a p e r . Messrs F r e n c h , McBridge and Pomeroy v e r y g e n e r o u s l y p r o v i d e d p r i v a t e b o a t t r a n s p o r t on s e p a r a t e e x p e d i t i o n s , and Major Reynolds p i l o t e d t h e A r m y h e l i c o p t e r . I s h o u l d a l s o l i k e t o t h a n k t h e f o l l o w i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n s f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t and a s s i s t a n c e : Department o f B e h a v i o u r a l S c i e n c e s and James Cook U n i v e r s i t y o f

North Queensland, Queensland Archaeological Branch (Department of Aboriginal and Islander Advancement), Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service, and the Royal Australian Army.

Special Research Grants were provided by James Cook University in 1976 and 1978.

Department of BehahouraZ Sciences

James Cook ~ n i v e r s i t y of North &ueenstand TawnsviZZe, &Id,

481 1

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