Australian Archaeology

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Archived at Flinders University: dspace.flinders.edu.au

Full Citation Details:

Stockton, E.D. 1977. Pipeline survey of Aboriginal relics in Northwestern New South Wales and Southwestern Queensland.

'Australian Archaeology', no.7, 7-18.

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The Journal of Aboriginal History,

Vol. I , P a r t s 1 and 2 ; 170 pp.

,

i l l u s t r a t i o n s , maps.

S u b s c r i p t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g s u r f a c e p o s t a g e ) : I n s t i t u t i o n s $10.50, p e r s o n a l $5.50.

C o n t e n t s

W. E. H . STANNER The h i s t o r y o f i n d i f f e r e n c e t h u s b e g i n s LYNDALL RYAN

LUISE HERCUS

JEREMY BECKETT

The s t r u g g l e f o r r e c o g n i t i o n : p a r t - A b o r i g i n e s i n Tasmania i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

T a l e s o f Nadu-qagali (Rib-bone B i l l y )

The T o r r e s S t r a i t I s l a n d e r s and t h e p e a r l i n g i n d u s t r y : a c a s e o f i n t e r n a l c o l o n i a l i s m

ROBERT REECE C u r r e n t Developments

ARCHIVES AND PUBLICATIONS

BOOK REVIEWS ANDREW MARKUS

A u s t r a l i a n Archives, Canberra: r e c o r d s o f t h e Department o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s r e l a t i n g t o A b o r i g i n e s 1901-16

A Missionary J o u r n a l o f a n e x p e d i t i o n from Zion H i l l (Nundah) t o Toorbul, Moreton Bay D i s t r i c t ,

i n 1842-43

A S e l e c t Bibliography o f A b o r i g i n a l H i s t o r y

Review a r t i c l e : Through a g l a s s , d a r k l y . A s p e c t s of c o n t a c t h i s t o r y .

Reviews of E. ^{J .}Stormon,

The Salvado Memoirs;

M a i s i e McKenzie,

Mission t o

Amhem

Land;

Nancy C a t o ,

Mister MzZoga;

Margaret F r a n k l i n ,

B k c k and White Australians;

Bobbie Hardy,

Lament for t h e Barkin&';;

L. Haglund,

The Broadbeach Aboriginal Burial Ground;

N i c o l a s P e t e r s o n ,

Tribes and BomdQries i n Australia;

J a n e t Mathews,

The l%~o Worlds of J i k e Barker.

PIPELINE SURVEY OF ABORIGINAL RELICS I N NORTHWESTERN NEW SOUTH WALES AND SOUTHWESTERN QUEENSLAND

.

Introduction

P r e p a r a t o r y t o t h e l a y i n g o f t h e n a t u r a l g a s p i p e l i n e from Moomba t o Sydney, a s u r v e y of A b o r i g i n a l s i t e s a l o n g t h e r o u t e was c a l l e d f o r . I n a n i n i t i a l s u r v e y , I covered t h e w e s t e r n p o r t i o n i n two t o t h r e e weeks i n August, 1973, b u t a r e s u l t i n g awareness of t h e magnitude and p o t e n t i a l o f t h e v e n t u r e , coupled w i t h a d e l a y i n e n g i n e e r i n g work, l e d t o a more thorough s u r v e y by Rosemary Buchan between November 1974 and A p r i l 1975. I n b o t h s u r v e y s , s i t e s were r e c o r d e d , worked s t o n e c o l l e c t e d , p o t e n t i a l f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h noted and t h e p i p e l i n e a u t h o r i t y a l e r t e d

Archived at Flinders University: dspace.flinders.edu.au

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of t h e danger t o s i g n i f i c a n t s i t e s . The second s u r v e y was a b l e t o o b s e r v e t h e e f f e c t ( g r e a t e r t h a n a n t i c i p a t e d ) o f f l o o d i n g a n d wind e r o s i o n on s i t e s over one y e a r . D e t a i l e d f i e l d r e p o r t s o f t h e two s u r v e y s a r e lodged w i t h t h e A u s t r a l i a n I n s t i t u t e o f A b o r i g i n a l S t u d i e s , b u t it was t h o u g h t u s e f u l t o p u b l i s h a p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t i n d i c a t i n g s i t e d e n s i t y and typology ( e s p e c i a l l y a s r e l a t e d t o l a n d f o r m ) , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p a l t o o l t y p e s and t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r more d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Reference i s a l s o made t o s e v e r a l l a r g e a n d e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e s i t e s o f f t h e r o u t e , which had been checked f o r p u r p o s e s o f comparison. To my

knowledge t h e o n l y p u b l i s h e d coverage f o r t h i s a r e a i s t h a t o f P.J. G r e s s e r (1962-4), b u t it i s n o t s y s t e m a t i c a n d i n o t h e r ways d o e s n o t answer t h e q u e s t i o n s posed by c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h .

Envi

ronrnen t

The r o u t e surveyed s t r e t c h e d from t h e B a r r i e r Highway w e s t o f Cobar t o t h e southwest c o r n e r o f Queensland. W i t h i n t h e easement, a b o u t 45 m wide and 479 km l o n g , t h e r e were n o t e d 1 8 1 s i t e s ( b e s i d e s 32 f l a k e s c a t t e r s t o o meagre t o b e s o r a t e d ) , which may seem r e m a r k a b l e f o r a n a r e a now r e c e i v i n g a n i r r e g u l a r annual r a i n f a l l o f 200-300 mm. The dominant f e a t u r e s of t h e c o u n t r y were t h e h i l l c o u n t r y o f Devonian sand- s t o n e around M t Macpherson, t h e two p l a t e a u x o f C r e t a c e o u s s e d i m e n t s p a r t l y capped by d u r i c r u s t (Purnanga P l a t e a u and Grey Range), w i t h i n t e r - vening a r e a s of Quaternary dunes and c l a y p a n s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e D a r l i n g , Paroo and Bulloo r i v e r s y s t e m s ) . Hence t h e f o l l o w i n g d i v i s i o n s , b e g i n n i n g from t h e B a r r i e r Highway on t h e extreme f r i n g e of t h e Cobar Block (Devonian Sandstone of t h e Amphitheatre Group) :

1. Quaternary l a n d s u r f a c e , f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d :

( a ) Red sand p l a i n , g e n t l y duned, c a r r y i n g d e n s e g r a s s a n d moderate t i m b e r , b u t l a c k i n g s u r f a c e w a t e r

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n o t e v e n temporary l a k e s o r c r e e k s , a p a r t from t h o s e i s s u i n g from t h e t a b l e l a n d s t o t h e e a s t which a r e q u i c k l y l o s t i n t h e sandy s u r f a c e . The r a r e s i t e s o c c u r r e d on c l a y p a n s ( s e e Table 1 f o r r e g i o n a l s t a t i s t i c s ) . The l a r g e s i t e o f Barnato Lake i s c l o s e t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s p a r t o f t h e r o u t e ( F i g . 1 , T a b l e 3).

( b ) D a r l i n g f l o o d p l a i n , w i t h i t s b i l l a b o n g s , swamps, h i g h r e d dunes and l e v e l a r e a s of heavy g r e y c l a y . Denser o c c u p a t i o n o c c u r r e d on c l a y p a n s and dune blowouts. Goombalie and Goonery Bore a r e n o r t h e r n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e s e f l o o d p l a i n s i t e s .

2. The s t e e p h i l l c o u n t r y around M t Macpherson and M t P l e a s a n t was a l l b u t devoid o f s i g n s o f human h a b i t a t i o n .

3. The f l o o d p l a i n s , swamps and r e d dunes o f t h e P e r i Lake-Paroo Channel country. Flake s c a t t e r s , l a r g e and small, were f r e q u e n t among t h e sand dunes. I t was o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e r e d dune s y s t e m o v e r l a y w h i t e dunes o r l u n e t t e s and t h a t t h e f l a k e d m a t e r i a l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e l a t t e r , p o s s i b l y exposed i n r e c e n t t i m e s , was markedly more a r c h a i c t h a n t h a t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e r e d sand dunes (Lawrie 1977 p e r s . comm. ; d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n i n r e l e v a n t s i t e r e p o r t s , and below)

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4. he s t o n y p l a t e a u c o u n t r y a b o u t Purnanga and Yancannia, e l e v a t e d a b o u t 150 m, i n t e r s e c t e d by Yancannia Creek a n d i t s t r i b u t a r i e s . Small s c a t t e r s and s i g n s o f q u a r r y i n g a r e e v i d e n t on t h e exposed p a r t s o f t h e p l a t e a u , b u t o c c u p a t i o n a l m a t e r i a l i s c o n c e n t r a t e d

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WALES

F i g . 1. flap e f s u r v e y mrmm, s h a u i n g p i p m l i n m , mmctimns numbmrmd a s i n thm t m x t and lmrgm mtf-rmutm sitms.

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on t h e banks of t h e p r i n c i p a l c r e e k s and i n s h a l l o w b a s i n s of t h e e l e v a t e d a r e a s . A t Questa P a r k , j u s t s o u t h of t h e r o u t e , i s a v e r y p r o l i f i c and e x t e n s i v e quarry/work f l o o r : low h i l l s h e a v i l y q u a r r i e d b o r d e r broad c r e e k f l a t s where f l a k e d m a t e r i a l i s l i t e r a l l y p i l e d i n p l a c e s . The s i t e o f f e r s e x c e l l e n t r e s e a r c h p o t e n t i a l e s p e c i a l l y where t h e work f l o o r i s covered by windblown s a n d and h a s e s c a p e d a r t e f a c t c o l l e c t o r s .

5, Lowlying Quaternary s u r f a c e s c o n s i s t i n g o f f l o o d p l a i n s , c l a y p a n s , sand dunes and swamps a b o u t Whyjonta and S a l i s b u r y Downs, a t t h e s o u t h e r n end o f t h e B u l l o o R i v e r Overflow. S i g n s o f o c c u p a t i o n a r e f r e q u e n t on c l a y p a n s and on t h e banks o f t h e Mecoola and Bootra Creek networks. There a r e a l s o s t o n e a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d q u a r r i e s , t h e l a t t e r o c c u r r i n g where beds of s u i t a b l e p e b b l e s ( d u r i c r u s t ? ) a r e exposed between sand r i d g e s

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it is l i k e l y t h a t some o f t h e s e q u a r r y / work f l o o r s have been p a r t l y covered by sand and o f f e r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h p o t e n t i a l . Large s i t e s were n o t e d t o t h e n o r t h a t Osaca Bore and C l i f t o n Downs, w h i l e c l o s e r t o t h e p i p e l i n e , a b o u t Lake A l t i b o u k a a n d The Three H i l l s , Rowlands h a s r e c o r d e d c l u s t e r s of s t o n e a r r a n g e m e n t s , q u a r r i e s a n d camp s i t e s (1970:49-55)

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^Thewhole a r e a , r i c h i n s t o n e and (presumably) food r e s o u r c e s , must have been a s t r o n g f o c u s f o r A b o r i g i n a l l i f e i n t h e north-west and would repay a more i n t e n s i v e r e g i o n a l s t u d y .

6. The Grey Range a b o u t Tibooburra i s rough s t o n y h i l l c o u n t r y , r e a c h i n g a n e l e v a t i o n above 2 3 0 m, i n t e r s e c t e d by t h r e e l a r g e c r e e k s . Canp s i t e s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d , a l m o s t c o n t i n u o u s l y it seems, a l o n g t h e c r e e k banks. Numerous q u a r r i e s a n d work f l o o r s r e f l e c t a n abundance of s u i t a b l e toolmaking s t o n e ( c h e r t , q u a r t z i t e , s i l c r e t e , e t c . ) , w h i l e a n i n t e r e s t i n g q u a r r y complex n o r t h w e s t of Ganya Creek, p r o b a b l y combined t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of s t o n e and o c h r e s o u r c e s . Buchan n o t e s t h e r e s e a r c h p o t e n t i a l o f t h i s a r e a , i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n of q u a r r i e d m a t e r i a l , i n the v a r i e t y o f t o o l s and stone-working t e c h n i q u e s and i n t h e i n d i c a t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t i a l working o f s p e c i f i c s t o n e t y p e s .

7. The beginnning o f t h e Q u a t e r n a r y d u n e f i e l d s which s t r e t c h f a r i n l a n d beyond t h e surveyed r o u t e . I t i s a p p r o p r i a t e l y s u b d i v i d e d a s f o l l o w s :

( a ) The New South Wales s e c t i o n f l a n k i n g M t McDonald a n d i n t e r s e c t e d by a network of c r e e k s i s s u i n g from h i g h c o u n t r y t o n o r t h and west. There was s p o r a d i c e v i d e n c e o f s t o n e working on c r e e k banks, c l a y p a n s and dune blowouts, and of q u a r r y i n g i n o u t c r o p s of s u i t a b l e s t o n e .

( b ) The Queensland s e c t i o n b e g i n n i n g t h e heavy s u c c e s s i o n of h i g h red sand r i d g e s , which i n c r e a s e i n f r e q u e n c y a n d h e i g h t t o w a r d s t h e i n t e r i o r . I n c l a y p a n s and dune blowouts a r e s i t e d a few f l a k e s c a t t e r s , most comprising l e s s t h a n 1 0 f l a k e s . P o s s i b l y t h i s s p a r s e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a r t e f a c t s c o n t i n u e s f o r a n o t h e r 65 km till S t r z e l e c k i Creek i n South A u s t r a l i a .

See Table 1 f o r t h e comparative d i s t a n c e s t r a v e r s e d by t h e p i p e l i n e through each of t h e above a r e a s and f o r t h e number of s i t e s w i t h i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e t r a n s e c t s . The h i g h e s t s i t e d e n s i t y o c c u r r e d i n t h e Paroo system, followed by t h e comparable lowland a r e a s o f t h e B u l l o o and Darling. The lowest d e n s i t i e s were found i n t h e mountainous parts a b o u t M t Macpherson and t h e Grey Range and i n t h e w a t e r l e s s sandy c o u n t r y

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o f t h e s o u t h e a s t and n o r t h w e s t e x t r e m i t i e s o f t h e surveyed r o u t e ( l a and 7 b ) . Q u a r r y i n g was common i n t h e d u r i c r u s t a r e a s west o f t h e Paroo, o c c u r r i n g sometimes a s a n a c t i v i t y c o n c e n t r a t e d h e a v i l y a t one p l a c e (e.g.

Questa P a r k ) , b u t more o f t e n d i s p e r s e d t h i n l y over wide t r a c t s of s t o n y h i g h l a n d . H e a r t h s were found o n l y e a s t o f t h e Grey Range, t h e baked c l a y v a r i e t y b e i n g g e n e r a l t h r o u g h o u t , b u t h e a r t h s o f s t o n e o c c u r r i n g o n l y i n s t o n y p a r t s o f t h e Purnanga and Bulloo a r e a s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e p r o b a b l y depending on t h e m a t e r i a l c l o s e s t t o hand.

Tool D i s t r i b u t i o n

I n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e two s u r v e y s , a t o t a l c o l l e c t i o n of worked s t o n e was made on 57 s i t e s , random c o l l e c t i o n s on 1 4 , t o t a l c o l l e c t i o n i n random s q u a r e s on 44, and 1 3 s e l e c t i v e c o l l e c t i o n s . A n a l y s i s o f t h e m a t e r i a l from t h e f i r s t s u r v e y i s found w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i t e r e p o r t s . For t h e second s u r v e y , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s complete f o r t h e n o r t h w e s t end

( r e g i o n s 7a and b ) and f o r t h e s o u t h e a s t end ( l a and b, 2, p a r t of 3) a s f a r a s P e r i Lake. T a b l e 1, combining t h e r e s u l t s , l i s t s t h e more

i m p o r t a n t c l a s s e s o f t o o l s . To i l l u s t r a t e t h e b r o a d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e same t o o l t y p e s , T a b l e 3 g i v e s a t o o l c o u n t f o r some of t h e o f f - r o u t e s i t e s where s e l e c t i v e c o l l e c t i o n s were made. I n c l u d e d a r e B a r n a t o Lake and Lake C a r g e l l i g o t o t h e SE and S a n t a T e r e s a i n C e n t r a l A u s t r a l i a

( S t o c k t o n 1 9 7 1 ) .

The c o l l e c t e d m a t e r i a l i s housed i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e s t a t e museums.

There a r e a l s o c o l l e c t i o n s o f l o c a l a r t e f a c t s a t t h e T i b o o b u r r a Hotel, M t S t u a r t , M t Wood ( f o r which N a t i o n a l P a r k s and W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e h a s a f u l l i n v e n t o r y ) , Whyjonta, B r i n d i w i l p a , Tero Creek and Yalda Downs.

These and o t h e r c o l l e c t i o n s need t o be t a k e n i n t o account i n a s s e s s i n g t o o l c o u n t s i n t h i s r e p o r t . Buchan n o t e d t h a t t h e Yalda Downs c o l l e c t i o n b o a s t e d a l a r g e number o f p i r r i p o i n t s , y e t none was t o b e found a t any

s i t e s on t h e p r o p e r t y . M t Wood h a s many examples o f l o n g b l a d e s up t o 2 5 cm l o n g , w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o r e s , and some o f t h e b l a d e s have been trimmed l i k e l e i l i r a b l a d e s o r back-blunted, b u t a g a i n t h e s e were n o t e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e s u r v e y .

Large a r t e f a c t s which were h i g h l i g h t e d i n p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s b u t p o o r l y r e p r e s e n t e d on t h e ground i n c l u d e d edge-ground a x e s , c y l c o n s , u n i f a c e and b i f a c e c h o p p e r s , hammerstones ( i n c l u d i n g t h e k u l k i v a r i e t y ) , a n v i l s t o n e s and m i l l s t o n e s ( b o t h upper and l o w e r ) . M i l l s t o n e s remaining i n t h e f i e l d a r e o f t e n fragmentary and it seemed b e t t e r t o i n d i c a t e i n T a b l e 1 t h e number o f s i t e s where t h e y were found, r a t h e r t h a n t h e number found. The t y p e s d e s c r i b e d f o r C e n t r a l A u s t r a l i a (Stockton 1971:53-4) were a l l r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e survey a r e a . Cores i n c l u d e d .horsehoof c o r e s , b o t h l a r g e a n d small, a n d a l t e r n a t i v e l y f l a k e d c o r e s , b u t most were amorphous. O c c u r r i n g t h r o u g h o u t , though r a r e l y , was a s m a l l a r t e f a c t which may have been a c o r e f o r producing f l a k e l e t s ( l i k e a s c a l a r c o r e ) o r an a d z e

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it t e n d s t o b e f l a t w i t h f i n e long f a c e t s o v e r b o t h s u r f a c e s , o f t e n w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f l a k i n g on one f a c e s e t a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h a t on t h e o t h e r ( c f . S t o c k t o n 1971:51-2). Only t w o t r u e f a b r i c a t o r s were s e e n ( r e g i o n s 3 a n d 4 ) .

Thick f l a k e t o o l s , b o t h steep-edged s c r a p e r s and s e r r a t e d f l a k e s , w e r e t h e major component o f assemblages throughout t h e survey a r e a , a v e r a g i n g 34.5% o f a l l retouched a r t e f a c t s ( r a n g i n g between 20% and

40%). Next i n i m p o r t a n c e , w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 23% (12%-30%), were s m a l l

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f l a k e t o o l s trimmed on a t h i n edge ( s i d e , e n d , n o s e , c o n c a v e ) , Among t h e more w i d e s p r e a d and s p e c i a l i s e d s c r a p e r s , were e n d s c r a p e r s ( d i s c o i d o r s e m i - d i s c o i d ) , more o f t e n s t e e p - e d g e d b u t a l s o s h a r p - e d g e d , which a v e r a g e d 17.5% ( 9 % - 2 5 % ) . A l s o d i s t i n c t i v e were f l a k e s w i t h f i n e r e g u l a r d e n t a t i o n on a t h i n edge, w i t h up t o s e v e n t e e t h p e r cm, q u i t e u n l i k e t h e c o a r s e , o f t e n i r r e g u l a r , d e n t a t i o n o f C a p e r t i a n saws f u r t h e r e a s t (and r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e by Lake C a r g e l l i g o ) . Both d i s c o i d s c r a p e r s a n d d e n t a t e d f l a k e s o c c u r commonly i n c e n t r a l A u s t r a l i a ( T a b l e 3 ) .

A r t e f a c t s s p e c i f i c t o t h e S m a l l T o o l T r a d i t i o n were r a t h e r l i g h t on t h e ground, p a r t l y due p e r h a p s , a t l e a s t i n r e s p e c t t o p i r r i p o i n t s , t o c o l l e c t o r s ' z e a l . T a b l e 2 sets o u t t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n by r e g i o n s , e x p r e s s e d a s t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t o t a l f l a k e d m a t e r i a l from s i t e s where s u c h t o o l s o c c u r . No t r e n d s a r e o b v i o u s w i t h i n t h e s u r v e y a r e a , e i t h e r between e a s t and w e s t o r between h i g h l a n d a n d l o w l a n d , b u t o c c u r r e n c e o f s u c h t o o l s i n a s u r f a c e s u r v e y can b e e x p e c t e d t o b e l a r g e l y f o r t u i t o u s (e.g. l a c k o f t u l a s a n d p i r r i s i n t h e Grey Range, though w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d i n p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s ) . S t r o n g e r t r e n d s c a n b e s e e n i n comparing a g g r e g a t e p e r c e n t a g e s f o r t h e a r e a w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g f i g u r e s from Small Tool l e v e l s o f e x c a v a t i o n s i n c e n t r a l A u s t r a l i a

( S t o c k t o n 1971: 57-60) a n d i n t h e Blue Mountains ( S t o c k t o n 1973; 1974)

,

where t h e t o t a l f l a k e y i e l d was r e s p e c t i v e l y 1276 a n d 1 0 , 1 3 0 . G e o m e t r i c m i c r o l i t h s , a v e r a g i n g .53% i n t h e s u r v e y a r e a a s a g a i n s t . 3 3 % i n t h e Blue Mountains and 1.49% i n c e n t r a l A u s t r a l i a , show a s t e a d y i n c r e a s e i n l a n d . Backed p o i n t s a t -11% i s a marked d e c r e a s e from 1 . 9 % i n t h e Blue Mountains, b u t e l o u e r a s a v e r a g i n g - 2 % a n d - 2 4 % r e s p e c t i v e l y b e t w e e n t h e t w o a r e a s s u g g e s t a f a i r l y c o n s t a n t o c c u r r e n c e t h r o u g h o u t . T u l a s were more common i n t h e s u r v e y a r e a , a t 1 . 4 7 % , t h a n i n t h e c e n t r e a t 1 . 0 2 % .

U n i f a c e p o i n t s a p p e a r e d t o h a v e a v e r y r e s t r i c t e d d i s t r i b u t i o n , o n l y one b e i n g found e a s t o f t h e D a r l i n g ( a t B a r n a t o , c f . T a b l e s 1 a n d 3 ) . The c e n t r a l A u s t r a l i a n e x c a v a t i o n d i d n o t y i e l d u n i f a c e p o i n t S , b u t

s u r f a c e f i n d s i n t h e two a r e a s showed i n t e r e s t i n g t y p o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s . By comparison w i t h t h o s e o f t h e c e n t r e ( S t o c k t o n 1 9 7 1 : 5 2 ) , t h e New S o u t h

' Wales examples were s m a l l e r , f i n e r a n d n e a t l y trimmed from margin t o r i d g e , showing more a f f i n i t y w i t h S o u t h A u s t r a l i a n p o i n t s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h t h e s o u t h e r n o r Fulham v a r i e t y (Campbell a n d Edwards 1966: 199-200;

McCarthy 1967: 3 8 ) .

Backed and u n i f a c e p o i n t s s h o u l d n o t b e i s o l a t e d from t h e w i d e r r a n g e o f p o i n t s , i n a l o c a l i n d u s t r y s t r o n g l y c h a r a c t e r i s e d by p o i n t p r o d u c t i o n . N a t u r a l l y p o i n t e d f l a k e s were common, some w i t h r e d u c e d b u t t o r r i d g e . A number o f f l a t s y m m e t r i c a l p o i n t s showed a b r u p t trimming on o n e o r b o t h m a r g i n s , i n t h e manner o f t h e A d e l a i d e p o i n t s

(Campbell a n d Edwards 1966:198; McCarthy 1 9 6 7 : 3 8 ) . L a r g e r s y m m e t r i c a l p o i n t s were t o b e found a n s w e r i n g t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f p a r o o p o i n t

(McCarthy 1 9 6 7 : 3 8 ) , i n t h e few examples a p p e a r i n g t o b e p o i n t e d k n i v e s , h a v i n g one margin r a t h e r a b r u p t l y trimmed a n d b e i n g o f a s i z e s u i t a b l e f o r h o l d i n g i n t h e hand. A s t u d y o f t h e f u l l r a n g e o f p o i n t p r o d u c t i o n i n t h i s r e g i o n would be o f i n t e r e s t .

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Table 1: Regional statistics

Highland regions 2 4 6 Lowland regions l (a) l (b) 3 5 7(a) 7(b) Length of easement (km) 49 3 0 37 28 90 86 74 30 55 Number of sites 3 17 1 42 21 63 12 14 8 Site density (no. sites/km) .06 .57 .02 1.5 .23 .73 -16 -47 -15 Smaller flake scatters 5 10 17 Quarry activity

4 J J J

Number of hearths 5 23 24 8 3 1 5 Sites with millstones (no.) 1 7 7 6 4 1 5 Total flaked stone collected C-' Totalclassifieditems Cores Hammerstones Steep scrapers End/discoid scrapers Serrated flakes Edge-trimmed flake tools Dentated flakes Edge-trimmed points Surface-trimmed flake tools Uniface points Tulas Back-blunted flake tools Geometric microliths Backed points Eloueras

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Table 2: Distribution of artefacts specific to Small Tool Tradition

Regions as numbered l (a) l(b) 2 3 4 5 6 7 (a) 7 (b) Small tools absent: no. sites 3 1 0 11 5 3 4 9 2 Small tools present: no. sites 0 13 1 7 6 11 2 2 6 Total flaked stone in above 790 15 529 1024 1712 263 1685 5 72 % surface-trimmed flake tools 2.02 6.7 1.89 3.32 1.23 .24 4.2 % uniface points .57 .76 .l2 .l8 % tulas 2.02 6.7 1.32 2.56 1.11 -24 4.02 % back-blunted tools c-r % geometric microliths z- % backed points % eloueras -p- Total classif ied items 137 5 110 244 383 59 130 111

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Discussion

The Small Tool T r a d i t i o n i n t h e a r e a h a s o b v i o u s c o n t a c t s w i t h w e s t e r n and s o u t h e r n assemblages, and r a t h e r l e s s w i t h t h o s e o f t h e e a s t . Regional s p e c i a l i t i e s , though by no means u n i q u e t o t h e r e g i o n , might b e s e e n i n t h e t u l a s , d i s c o i d s c r a p e r s and d e n t a t e d f l a k e s a n d i n t h e a c c e n t on p o i n t p r o d u c t i o n . I n t h i s survey, t h e i n d u s t r y was b e s t r e p r e s e n t e d i n v a r i e t y and workmanship, a s w e l l a s i n s h e e r q u a n t i t y , i n t h e B u l l o o and Paroo a r e a s and a l s o i n t h e broad v a l l e y o f t h e Yancannia Creek system.

Discussion on t h e e a r l i e r l i t h i c i n d u s t r y i s d i f f i c u l t on t h e s o l e b a s i s o f a s u r f a c e survey. Archaic e l e m e n t s , such a s s t e e p s c r a p e r s , choppers and s e r r a t e d f l a k e s , can be found i n r e d u c e d numbers and s i z e i n l a t e r i n d u s t r i e s , and t h e d e f l a t e d s u r f a c e s o f many s i t e s c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o have mixed assemblages. However judging from t o o l t y p e s and g e n e r a l s i z e o f a r t e f a c t s , t h e r e was a d i s t i n c t i m p r e s s i o n o f e x c l u s i v e l y o r predominantly p r i m i t i v e assemblages i n e l e v a t e d c o u n t r y , e s p e c i a l l y a b o u t Tibooburra, and on exposed o l d e r s u r f a c e s o f t h e P a r o o c o u n t r y and o f some

c r e e k banks. A t t h e Paroo, on r e c e n t l y d e f l a t e d l u n e t t e s u r f a c e s (and sometimes s t i l l p a r t l y embedded) i s a n assemblage o f m i l l s t o n e s ( u p p e r and lower, o f a l l t y p e s e x c e p t g r o o v e d ) , horsehoof c o r e s , l a r g e p r i m a r y f l a k e s , s t e e p s c r a p e r s , s e r r a t e d f l a k e s , h a m e r s t o n e s and l a r g e u s e d and unused r i v e r p e b b l e s .

The l u n e t t e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h P e r i Lake a n d b o r d e r t h e P a r o o Channels. When t h e y were f i r s t o c c u p i e d , t h e r i v e r must have been f r e e f l o w i n g w i t h a p e b b l y bedload, judging from t h e many l a r g e p e b b l e s on t h e l u n e t t e s i t e s and t h e l a c k o f nearby s o u r c e s o f s u c h s t o n e a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . These e a r l y c a m p s i t e s must have been s u b s e q u e n t l y c o v e r e d by t h e r e d sand dunes and remained s o u n t i l r e c e n t l y b e c a u s e t h e r e - u s a b l e s t o n e l i t t e r was a p p a r e n t l y n o t a c c e s s i b l e t o l a t e r i n h a b i t a n t s , who had t o r e s o r t t o s o u r c e s f u r t h e r a f i e l d . The l u n e t t e o c c u p a t i o n may have been roughly contemporary w i t h Mungo and s i m i l a r sites (Bowler 1976: 59)

,

presuming t h e y were formed a t t h e same t i m e . Human p r e s e n c e n e a r b y , a t Lake Yantara, d a t e s back a t l e a s t t o 26,000

+

1100 BP (Dury a n d Langford- Smith 1970:73), a t a t i m e when t h e c l i m a t e was c o l d e r and presumably l e s s a r i d . The i n c i d e n c e o f l a r g e t o o l assemblages i n d i c a t e s o c c u p a t i o n o f b o t h h i g h l a n d s and lowlands.

I n s i g h t i n t o t h e chronology o f l a t e P l e i s t o c e n e c l i m a t e s a n d landforms was a f f o r d e d by r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s o b t a i n e d , i n t h e company o f M . J . Walker and J . M . Bowler, when t r e n c h i n g f o r t h e p i p e l i n e p r o c e e d e d through t h e D a r l i n g f l o o d p l a i n . These w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d i n d e t a i l a t t h e Murray-Darling Symposium t o b e h e l d i n Melbourne i n O c t o b e r , 1977, and p u b l i s h e d by t h e Royal S o c i e t y of V i c t o r i a . I n summary, t h e y show dune f o r m a t i o n a t 35,450

+

1600 BP (SUA-435) which i s c o n t i n u o u s w i t h t h e sandy p l a i n s t r e t c h i n g e a s t t o t h e Cobar Block, pronounced a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t i o n a t 19,600 2 460 BP (SUA-438), renewed dune f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e 16,930 2 230 (SUA-446) and a g a i n i n t h e Holocene b r a c k e t t i n g t h e d a t e s 8035 2 120 BP (SUA-449), 4420 2 100 BP (SUA-450), 335 2 100 BP (SUA-447) and 245

+

100 BP (SUA-448), w i t h d i s t i n c t s i g n s o f a more r e c e n t dune a g g r a d a t i o n . These d a t a would seem t o r e f l e c t a l t e r n a t i n g r e g i m e s o f g r e a t e r and l e s s a r i d i t y , t o g e t h e r w i t h a marked change from a l l u v i a l t o a e o l i a n d e p o s i t i o n towards t h e end o f t h e l a s t g l a c i a l (now c o n s i d e r e d t h e d r i e s t p e r i o d s i n c e man h a s been i n A u s t r a l i a , Bowler 1976:36, 7 2 ) .

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S e t t i n g man and h i s c u l t u r a l development a g a i n s t t h e s e

e n v i r o n m e n t a l changes, some broad o u t l i n e s can be proposed. The e a r l i e s t human p r e s e n c e i n t h e s u r v e y a r e a was under c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s most f a v o u r a b l e t o a l l l i f e forms. One may e n v i s a g e f o r t h e h i g h l a n d s a g r e a t e r s o i l and p l a n t c o v e r t h a n now, and i n t h e lowlands less developed dune systems. T h i s regime was s e v e r e l y r e v e r s e d towards t h e end of t h e l a s t i c e a g e w i t h t h e o n s e t of a r i d c o n d i t i o n s which may have s t r i p p e d h i g h c o u n t r y o f s o i l , e s t a b l i s h e d t h e e x t e n s i v e r e d sand dune system and choked t h e P a r o o and B u l l o o r i v e r systems ( i f n o t t h e D a r l i n g ) . Human o c c u p a t i o n may w e l l have c e a s e d , e x c e p t a l o n g remaining w a t e r c o u r s e s . With t h e r e t u r n o f a more f a v o u r a b l e c l i m a t e and i n c r e a s e d s u p p o r t f o r l i f e forms i n t h e e a r l y t o mid Holocene (Bowler 1976:73), new t e c h n o l o g i e s a l s o began t o e n t e r t h e r e g i o n . Judging from t h e Burke's Cave sequence

( A l l e n 1972:148, though h i s d a t e o f 1850 2 240 BP seems t o o low by comparison w i t h s i m i l a r s i t e s e l s e w h e r e ) , t h e backed b l a d e i n d u s t r y was the f i r s t t o a r r i v e , t o b e l a t e r o v e r l a i d by a n i n d u s t r y o f t u l a s , f l a t p o i n t s a n d o t h e r s p e c i a l i s e d f l a k e t o o l s t y p i c a l o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n a r i d

zone. E t h n o g r a p h i c d a t a ( S u l l i v a n 1970) s u g g e s t t h a t , a t t h e time of European c o n t a c t , low-lying c o u n t r y n e a r w a t e r was p r e f e r r e d t o t h e now g i b b e r - s t r e w n h i g h l a n d s . S i n c e c o n t a c t and t h e demise of t r i b a l l i f e , wind a n d w a t e r e r o s i o n , p o s s i b l y i n t e n s i f i e d by g r a z i n g and i n c r e a s e d a r i d i t y , h a s exposed some o f t h e o l d e r A b o r i g i n a l c a m p s i t e s .

E.D. Stockton

The C a t h o l i c I n s t i t u t e o f Sydney

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