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Thesis Consent Form

Plac,e as Occupatioual llistories: Towards an U-nderstanding of Deflated Surfaee Artefact Distributions in the West Darllng, New South \Males;

Australia

BY

Ju*inIan

Shine.r

A-the-sis submiftEd in partial fulfil,lment of the requirerriento f,or the degree of Do-ator

of

Fhilossphy in

rtnthropology,

The Uufuersity of Auekkrnd,zi,AD4

Abstract

This thesis develops theoretical and methodological approaches to the investigation

of

deflated surfbce stone artefact scatters beyond those that emphasise synchronic behavioural interpretations. The study

is

undertaken on Pine Point and Langwell Stations,

two

adjoining pastoral leases south

of

Broken

Hill

in arid Western New South Wales,

Australia.

The main

objective of the study is to

investigate long-terrn accumulated patterns

in

stone artefact

assemblage composition within archaeological deposits with known

occupational chronologies. These are derived from the dating

of

charcoal from heat retainer hearths.

It

is argued that the Pine Point-Langwell assemblages represent multiple episodes of accumulation over the last 2,000

years.

Therefore, the formation

of

the Pine Point-Langwell assemblages means they are ideal for the investigation

of

long-term accumulated pattems.

To

analyse the composition

of

the Pine Point-Langwell assemblages, the concepts

of

artefact use

life,

curation, the intensity

of

raw material utilisation and occupation intensity ^are

used.

These

permit the

investigation

of

assemblage accumulation as

a

temporal process.

Assemblages are not thought

of

as synchronic functional sets but rather as the consequence

of

repeated and discontinuous discard episodes

overtime.

As occupation intensity increases, so does the intensity

of

raw material

utilisation.

Cores and tools

will

be worked more intensively and assemblages

will

be dominated by local raw material, ^as access to distant sources becomes restricted.

Analysis

of the

composition

of the

Pine Point-Langwell assemblages indicates both consistencies and inconsistencies in the reduction and utilisation

of lithic

raw materials. Some

of

the consistencies are argued

to

reflect the character and

distribution of

^the

wider lithic

landscape. In general, there is a distance decay relationship in the reduction

of silcrete.

This relationship is not eviderrt in all measures of reduction

intensity.

Variation in measures of core reduction is interpreted to reflect the variable nature of occupation through time at each of the locations

in

both duration and

frequency.

Over the time span represented

in

the Pine Point- Langwell occupational chronology, multiple behavioural patterns result in internal assemblage variability.

Environmental variabilit-v may also contribute to the formation

of

variable assemblage patterns, There is evidence fi'om south western NSW

for

environmental oscillation over ^the period represented

by

the occupational chronologies

in the

Pine Point-Langwell study area.

This is interpreted as a possible impulse for the punctuated record of human occupation in the area

during the

last

2000 years.

Hiatuses

in the

occupational chronology provide further evidence of the

variability

associated

with

the formation

of

the assemblages. Finally, notions

of

continuity and discontinuity

in

assemblage formation are explored across the wider region

of

Western

NSW. Late

Holocene assemblages

from

Fowlers

Gap and

Burkes Cave are compared to the Pine Point-Langwell assemblages.

It is

concluded

that the

approaches

to

reconstructing past settlement systems

in

the Australian arid zone are based on ^a fundamental misunderstanding of the formation of deflated archaeological deposits. This in turn leads to the use

of

inappropriate interpretive frameworks

for

the archaeological

record.

These frameworks often ignore chronology and assume both contemporaniety and consistency

in

behaviour through

time. This

denies the opportunity to investigate

the diachronic

aspects

of deflated

deposits,

both in terms of

occupational chronologies and discontinuities in raw material management and reduction.

Keywords: Assemblage Composition, Intensity of Raw Material

Utilisation,

Long-Term ^Place Use History, Occupational Chronologies, and Occupation Duration

Acknowledgements

A

great many people have assisted in the researching and

writing of

this

thesis.

First

and

foremost,

I would like to

acknowledge

the

assistance

of my

supervisors

Dr.

Simon Holdaway and

Dr.

Peter Sheppard

of the

Department

of

Anthropology,

The

University

of Auckland.

Special thanks are extended

to

Simon whose encouragement and assistance over many years

is not only inspiring

but also greatly appreciated.

Dr.

Patricia Fanning

of

the Graduate School of the Environment, Macquarie University has also been a constant source

of

encouragement and assistance over many years.

I

also wish to ackowledge Simon Holdaway

and Trish Fanning for allowing me to

access

the WNSWAP

database

including

the radiocarbon determinations from the

ND

and SC locations. Thanks

in

general to the Western

New

South Wales Archaeology Program (WNSWAP)

for

providing me

with

the opportunity to study the surface record of the Western Division.

Thanks

to

the Broken

Hill

Local

Aboriginal

Land Council,

which

has supported my research throughout, and especially Ray

O'Donnell. A

special thanks also to Ron and Marilyn Harvy and

family of

Pine Point Station and Doug and Joy Harrison and

family of

Langwell Station

for allowing

the project

to

be undertaken on

their

pastoral leases and also

to

Robert Pearce

of

Sunnydale

Station.

Further thanks to the Harvy's for allowing me to make my home in the shearers' quarters and

old

homestead. Badger Bates

of

the New South Wales National Parks and

Wildlife

Service, Broken

Hill District Office

suggested several possible locations for the project to be undertaken and I thank him for his help.

Many of the staff in the Department of Anthropology at Auckland provided assistance including Hamish McDonald and

Tim

Mackrell who helped

with

photography equipment and photo production, and Joan Lawrence and Seline McNamee

for

drawing the

figures.

Thank you to

Jill

Scott from Weipa who

kindly

proofread the final

draft.

Thanks, also to local media organisations in Broken

Hill,

ABC radio and the Barrier Daily Truth.

The assistance of the

following

people (in no particular order) is acknowledged. Harry

Allen,

Melinda

Allen,

Peter White, Robin Torrence, Richard Robins, Leanne Brass and

staff of

the Australian Museum, Sydney, David Frankel,

LuAnn

Wandsnider, Jeffery Parsons, the Edwards

Family formerly of

Broughton Vale Station, John Pickard, Thegn Ladefoged, Rod Wallace, Sarah

Martin,

Harvey Johnston, Peter Hiscock,

Nikki

Stern, staff at the Department

of

Mineral Resources, Broken

Hill,

staff at the Department

of

Land and Water Conservation,

III

Broken

Hill.

Thanks

to Silvie Hrdlieka for

support and

the long

hours

in the lab

and to Bridget Mosley f,or the very long hours spent ln the field duringthe 2001

field

seasoR,

T

^rlks

also

to

the

Anthro

students at Auskland, and

in

partioular those

in

the Friday mo,rning PhD reading group.

Th4nks to my parents" Ian and

Bwerley

for constant zupport and encourangement ov€r many years. And to Lisa;

thanls

f'or inrposing eight ^horrrr days on me and making rny time in Broken

Hill

so muph better. Yorn support has bien faritastic.

A

University

of

Auckland Docfoml Seholarship funded the

majority of

^{this research.}

The

Univervity of

Waikato Graduate Radiocarbon Datir,rg Fund,

the

Australian Institute

of Aboriginal and Toites Strait lslander

Studies and

Dr. Simon

Hotdaway and

Dr,

Patrica Farning provided additional fi,rnding for nadiscarbon determinations.

IV

Table of Contents

Abstract

...1

Acknowledgements

...III

Chapter One Introduction to the Studv... ... I l.l Introduction... ...-... ...2

1.2 Research

Aim

^...6

1.3 The Study

Area...

...7

1.4 Thesis

Organisation...

...9

L5

Geomorphic History

of

Western New South Wales and the Formation

of

Deflated Surface Archaeological

Deposits...

... I ^I L5.1 The Surface Record

-

^{What is}

it?...

... I I 1.5.2 Geomorphic Processes and the Formation of the Western New South Wales Surface Archaeological

Record

...12

1.5.3 lmplications for the Study

of

Deflated Surface Distributions...

l4

1.6 Settlement Pattern Models and the Surface Archaeological Record of the

Arid

Zone... 15

1.6.1 Settlement Pattern

Models

... 15

1.6.2 The Synchronic Functional Paradigm and Site

Types

...17

L6.3 Site Types in Australian Archaeology

...

...

l9

1.6.4

Arid

Zone Settlement-Subsistence

Models....,.

...20

f .6.5 Predictive

Mode1s...

...26

1.7 An Alternative to Current Settlement Pattern Models

-

^{The Pine} Point-Lanswell

Approach

.."...21

1.7.1 Geomorphic Processes and the Surface Archaeology of the Pine Point-Langwell Study

Area...

...28

1.7.2 Theoretical Approach

-

^{Place Use}

History

^...28

1.7.3 Methodological

Approach..

...30

1.8 Summary

...

...-....32

Chapter Two Time and the Temporality of Artefact Accumulation.,...34

2.1 Introduction

...

...35

2.2 Chronological Contexts and Surface Archaeological Deposits:

A

Case Study of Stud

Creek

^...37

2.2.1 Dating

Arid

Zone Surface Archaeological

Deposits....

^...,.38

2.2.2 Establishing an Occupational Chronology for Deflated Surface Deposits at Stud

Creek

...40

2.3 Archaeological Time and the Accumulation of the Surface Archaeological Record ...42

2.3.1 Perceptions of Archaeological

Time...

...,...42

2.3.2Time Resolution and the Palimpsest

Problem...

...46

2.3.3 Discard and the Accumulation of Archaeological

Deposits

...48

2.3.4 Change, Variation and the Temporal Character of the

Record

...49

2.4 Approaches to the Spatial Analysis of Surface Artefact Distributions...53

2.4.1 Occupation Intensity, Occupation Duration and Spatial

Structure

^...54

V

Chapter Three

Studying Stone Artefact Assembla ge Composition

...,... 5e

3.1 Introduction

...

...60

3.2 Australian Stone Artefact

Assemblages...

^...60

3.2.1 The Core Tool and Scraper

Tradition

...61

3.2.2The Australian Small Tool

Tradition...

...62

3.2.3 Typology and the Chronological Context of Surface

Deposits..,.

...,...63

3.3 Themes in the Interpretation of Australian Stone Artefact Assemblages ...,....,...65

3.3.1 Early

Studies

...-...,...65

3.3.2

Function...

...66

3.3.3 Raw Materials and Distance to

Source

...68

3.3.4 Raw Material

Procurement

...70

3.4 Stone Artefacts and the Investigation of

Mobility...

^...74

3.4.1 Stone Artefact Studies and

Mobility...

...75

3.4.2 Assemblage Composition and

Mobility...

...76

3.5 Economic Approaches to the Analysis

of

Stone Artefact Assemblage Composition...8l 3.5.1 Local versus Non-Local Raw Material

...

...

8l

3.5.2 The Economics of Raw Material Transport and

Reduction...

^...82

3.6 Interpreting Stone Artefact Assemblage Composition in a Time-Averaged Archaeological

Record

...85

3.6.1 Stone Artefact Discard, Raw Material Reduction and Assemblage Composition...85

3.7

Summary...

...87

Chapter Four Archaeological and Geomorphic Context of the Study Area

4.1

Inhoduction...

...90

4.2The Environment

of

Far Western New South

WaIes...

...90

4.3 Archaeological Context of Far Western New South

Wales...

...91

4.3.1 Willandra

Lakes

...91

4.3.2 Menindee

Lakes

...93

4.3.3 Stone

Artefacts

...,...93

4.3.4 Late Holocene Archaeology of Far Western New South

Wales

...94

4.3.5 Previous Archaeological Fieldwork in the Study

Area...

...95

4.4 Geomorphology and Landscape History of Western New South

Wales

^...96

4.4.1 The

Ranges

...96

4.4.2 Plains and

Alluvial Fans...

...97

4.4,3 Drainage

...,...

...98

4.4.4 Recent Geomorphic History

of

Western New South

Wales

...,...99

4.4.5 Palaeoenvironmental Record

of

Western New South

Wales

...

l0l

4.4.6

Summary...

...

l0l

4.5 The Pine Point-Langwell Study

Area...

... 102

4.5.1 General

Description...

... 102 89

VI

4.5.2Land

Systems

... I03

4.5.3 Recent

RainfallTrends...

... 106

4.6, Landscape Features and Landforms of Pine Point and Langwell Stations

-

^Their History and Archaeological

Prospects

... I08 4.6.1

Creeks...

... ¹⁰⁸

4.6.2 Playa

Lakes

... I I ^I 4.6.3 Source Bordering

Dunes

... I I I 4.6.4 Floodplains and DepositionalTributary

Fans...

...112

4.6.5

Palaeo-Channels

... I 15

4.6.6Tenaces...

...

ll5

4.6.7 Scalds

...

... I 16 4.7

Discussion...

... I 16 4.8

Summary...

...,.. I 19

Chapter Five Archaeological Survey and Recording Methods .,....120

5.1 Introduction

...

...121

5.2 Fieldwork

Aims...

...

l2l

5.3 The Consultation

Proeess..

...122

5.3.1 Consultation with the Broken

HillLocal

Aboriginal Land Council

(BHLALC)..122

5.3.2 Consultation with Local

Landholders...

...122

5.3.3 Public Information and Community

Education...,....

^...123

5.4 Selection of the Study

Area...

...123

5.5 Fieldwork

...

...123

5.6 Field Survey and Site

Selection

...124

5.7 Sarnple Area Selection and

Description

...125

5.7.1 Results of the Reconnaissance

Survey...

...125

5.7.2 Sampling

Areas

...,,... ¹²⁸

5.8 Spatial

Mapping

...146

5.9 Artefact

Recording

...149

5.10 Micro-Geomorphic Surface

Recording.

...149

5.1

I

Hearth Recording and

Excavation..,...

... 150

5.12 Raw Material Source Identification and

Mapping...

^...151

5.13 Approaches to the Analysis of Stone Artefact Assemblage Composition... ¹⁵¹

5.13.1 Assemblage

Size

...152

5.13.2 Quantifying ^Raw Material

Proportion...

... 152

5.13.3

Quantif,ing

Technological

Composition.,...

....,... 152

5.13.4 Measuring the Intensity of Raw Material

Utilisation.

^{... 153}

5. 14 Summary

...

... 154

Chapter Six Establishing a Chronological Context for the Pine Point- Langwell Surface Archaeological Record...

... 155

6.1

Introduction...

... 156

6.2 Hearth Selection Criteria and Excavation Programme

...

^....157

6.2.1 Hearth

Survey....

...,.. 158

VII

6.2.2 Selection and Excavation

Criteria...

... 158

6.2.3 Description of ExcavatedHearths at Pine Creek that Returned a Charcoal Sample 6.3 Radiocarbon Determinations from the Pine Point-Langwell

Hearths...

^....166

6.3.1 Sample Preparation

...

...166

6.3.2

Resu1ts...,...

...,...167

6.3.3 Scale of Temporal Analysis

-

Occupational chronologies for the Two

Alluvial Systems...

... 169

6.3.4 Determinations and Landforms - Spatial

Patterns...

...174

6.4 Discussion

-

^Regional

Chronologies

^....176

Chapter Seven Raw Material Representation and Technological Description

^{... t8o} 7.

I

Introduction .

...

^{... , .. ... I 8 I} 7.2The Occurrence and Form of Potential Raw Material Sources within the Pine Point- Langwell Study

Area...

...182

7.2.1

Quan2...

... 184

7.2.2Qwrt2ite..,...

... 185

7.2.3

Si1crete...

... 187

7.2.4

Summary...

...192

7.3 Raw Material Representation and Characteristics

...

...192

7.3.1 Raw

MaterialProportion.

... 193

7.3.2 Raw Material

Quality

... 199

7.3.3 Nodule

Type...

...200

7.3.4 Nodule

Form

...202

7.3.5 Nodule

Size

...204

7.4 Discussion

...

...208

7.5 Summary

...

...208

Chapter Bight Raw Material Reduction and Assemblage Composition .,,ltl

8.1 Introduction

...

...

2l

I 8.2 Raw Material Utilisation, Occupation Intensity and the Composition

of

Stone Artefact

Assemblages...,...

...21 ^I 8.3 Core Reduction

Techniques

....,...213

8.4. Core Reduction

Intensity....

...,.218

8.4.

I

MNF (Minimum Number of Flakes) to Core Ratio

...

...218

8.4.2 Non-cortical to Cortical Complete Flake

Ratio

...,...,,...,220

8.4.3 Non-cortical to Cortical Core

Ratio

...221

8.4.4 Core

Si2e...

...222

8,4.5

Summary...

...228

8.5 Flake

Production

...229

8.5.1 Complete Flake Exterior Platform

Characteristics...

...?29

8.5.2 Flake

Si2e...

...232

8.5.3 Ffake

Shape

,...,....241

t62

VIII

8.5.4 Flake Platform

Type...

...245

8.5.5

Summary...

...248

8.6 Tool Production, Resharpening and

Discard...

^...249

8.6.1 Flake to Tool

Ratio...,...

...,.,..249

8.6.2 Complete Tool Form

Proportions

...250

8.6.3 Complete Flake Surface Area to Complete Scraper Surface Area...255

8.6.4 Mean Number of Retouched

Quadrants...,...,...

...,.,257

8.7 Summary of the Composition of the Pine Point-Langwell Assemblages... ...259

Chapter Nine Discussion: The Temporal Character of Assemblage Formation... ...261

9.1

Introduction...

...262

9.2 Inter-assemblage

Variability

in the Pine Point-Langwell

Assemblages

^...,.263

9.2.1 Long-term

Patterns...

...263

9.2.3 Occupation and Assemblage Accumulation

...

...267

9.2.4 Discussion: Resolution and

Behaviour

...270

9.2.5 Summary

-

Occupation

Histories

...?71

9.3 Regional Comparisons: Assemblage Composition and Place Use History at Pine Point- Langwell, Fowlers Gap and Burkes

Cave...

...272

9.3.1 Description

of

Burkes Cave

(BC)

...273

9.3.2 Description

of

Fowlers Gap (lrlD and SC assemblages)

...

...274

9.4 Assemblage

Comparison...

...277

9.4.1 Raw Material

Representation...

...,...277

9.4.2 Corc Reduction

lntensity....

...279

9.4.3 Summary: Raw Material

Reduction.

...280

9.4.4 Tool Production, Representation and

Resharpening...

...281

Assemblage

...

...282

9.5 Discussion: Accumulation and the Formation of the Pine Point-Langwell, Fowlers Gap and Burkes Cave

Assemblages

...283

9.6

Summary...

...,...290

Chapter Ten Conclusion to the Studv... ...2s1 l0.l Introduction...- ...2g2 10.2 The Pine Point-Langwell Evidence... ...294

l}.z.|Temporal Patterns

^...294

10.2.2 Assemblage

Composition...

...294

| 0.3 Regional Patterns

-

^Pine Point-Langwell in a Wider Western New South Wales

Context ...-.

... 295

10.4 The WesternNew South Wales Synthesis and Settlement-Subsistence Models...296

10.4.1 A Hypothetical Model of Landuse for the Pine Point-Langwell Study Area...296

10.4.2 Why the Hypothetical Landuse/Settlement Model Does Not Work...299

10.4.3 Assemblage Composition and Assemblage History:

A

Reconsideration of Veth's Rudall River

Interpretation...

...301

10.5

A

Reconsideration

of

Settlement

Systems

...304

IX

10.5.1 Continu'ityDi-scorfinuity,..:.!t..,1....,.r.r;r:...ri,.i..i,..r:....,r.i!,...'.i...,...r.i...,-.-304 10.5.2 Lo:rg-teon Flace Use Histories

- A

Dynamio Beh-avioural Interprelation?.,...306 l0.5.3,Futtrre Appl.ioations

forthe

Investigation of Plaoe Use History in Deflated

10.6Conc|usiolu,.'....'...n...l....t....

tsibliograp$r

³¹³

Appendix One: Atticle from the Barrier Daily Truth, Tuesday

Apperrdix Two,: Artefact Definitions...r!.!....r...i...,...

..,...347

Appendix Three': Artefact Attribute Definitiorls...i.r!..."....,349-

Appendix Four: I\ficro Geomorphic Surface Definitions...,...,3s3

Appendix Five: Hearth Attrib-ute Definitions...ri...,...354

Appendix Srix: Assemblage Composition

Tables...i.i.i...,..,...355

x

List of Figures

Figure

l.l.

Location of the Pine Point-Langwell study area and other features

of

Western New South Wales mentioned in the text, including the location of assemblages from Fowlers

Gap (ND and SC) and Burkes

Cave...

.,...8

Figure 4.1. Land systems of the Pine Point-Langwell study

area.

^{... 104}

Figure 4.2. Pine Creek channel on Pine Point Station..

...

^{... 109}

Figure 4.3.

A

section of the Rantyga Creek channel on Pine Point Station... ^I

l0

Figure 4.4. Section of a box swamp on Pine Point Station..

...

..,... I

l3

Figure 4.5.

A

source bordering dune along Pine Creek on Langwell

Station...

^{.... I}

l4

Figure

5.I

Location of the sampling areas and the

SQI

silcrete

quarry.

...129

Figure 5.2. Landscape context of the

KZI

sample

area...

...142

Figure 5.3. Landscape context looking south of the

KZ2

sample

area..

... 143

Figure 5.4. Landscape context of the

CNI

sample

area..

... 144

Figure 5.5. Landscape context of the CN3 sample

area...

...,.... 145

Figure 5.6. Artefacts marked

with

nails and coloured tape in the

KZZ

sampling area... 148

Figure 6.1. Condition of hearths in the Pine Creek and Rantyga Creek alluvial systems... ¹⁶⁰

Figure 6.2. Excavation potential of hearths recorded in the Pine Creek and Rantyga Creek alluvial

systems..

... 16l Figure 6.3. Calibrated radiocarbon determination plot for ^the Pine Point-Langwell hearths..l70 Figure 6.4. Distribution of dated hearths from the Pine Creek and Rantyga Creek alluvial

systems.

...,...173

Figure 6.5. Calibrated radiocarbon determinations from hearths on Fowlers Gap Station... ¹⁷⁸

Figure 7. I . Distribution of potential raw material sources relative to the four sampling areas. 183 Figure 7 .2. Quartz gibber in the Enmore

Hills

west

of

Pine Creek on Pine Point Station... ¹⁸⁶

Figure 7.3. SQ

I

silcrete quarry on ^a residual surface in the Sampson's Paddock

Hills

on Pine Point

Station...

...,.. 190

Figure 7.4. Raw material proportion calculated for the

SQI

assemblage by MNF, number and

volume..

...

l9l

Figure 7.5. Raw material proportion calculated for the CN

I assemblage..

... 195

Figure 7.6. Raw material proportion calculated for the CN3

assemblage..

... 196

Figure 7.7. Raw material proportion calculated for the

KZI assemblage...

....197

Figure 7.8. Raw material proportion calculated for the KZ2

assemblage...

^{.... 198}

Figure 8,

L

Shape plot of clast complete flakes by

assemblage...

...,..,..242

Figure 8.2. Shape plot of non-clast complete flakes by

assemblage...

...243

Figure 8.3. Shape plot of quartz complete flakes by assemblage..

...

...244

Figure 9.1. Raw material proportions by number for the Pine Point-Langwell, Fowlers Gap

(ND

and SC) and Burkes Cave (BC) assemblages..

...

^...278

Figure 10.1. Hypothetical landuse/settlement model

for

the Pine Point-Langwell study area.. ...298

XI

List of Tables

Table

l.l

Radiocarbon determinations from the four rockshelters in Veth's Rudall River study (Adapted frorn

Veth

1993:Chapter

Five)..

..,...23 Table 3.1. Water permanency class per individual site and the proportion, and distribution

of

locaf raw materials reported by Veth (1993:29-38)..

..

...

. ...

^...78

Table 4.1. Description of the geological history of the Broken

Hill

Block (Adapted from

Stevens 1986:75-78)....

...

...97

Table 4.2. Monthly rainfall total (mm) for Pine Creek station

from l99l

to 2002... ¹⁰⁷ Table 4.3. Potential chronological contexts

of

landforms in the Pine Point-Langwell study

area...

... I 18

Table 5.1. Archaeological assessment of individual landforms

within

each land system for the

ilii#.i#-."'':lif...''...'''.'.'...::::::]::::::::::::]::::::::::::::::

Table

5.5.KZZ

Transect

description

... 135

Table 5.6. Description of artefact categories used for the

initial

quantification of the

composition of the Pine Point-Langwell

assemblages...

... 153

Table 6.1. Radiocarbon determinations on charcoal from heat retainer hearths on Pine Point

and Langwell

Stations

...167

Table 6.2. Calibrated determinations althe 95Yo probability level for the Pine Point-Langwell

study

area..

... 168

Table 6.3.lnterpretation of Bayes factor

Model2

v.

Model l,

from Rafterty (1996)..,...

l7l

Table 6.4. Single versus multiple phases of hearth construction tested

forthe

Pine Point-

Langwell

determinations...

...172

Table 6. 5. Mean likelihood ratio for Single versus multiple phases

of

hearth construction tested for the Pine Point-Langwell

determinations...

...172 Table 7.1. Frequency and percentage (in _brackets) of clast silcrete non-cortical and cortical

complete flakes and cores at

SQI

... 189

Table 7.2. Raw material by minimum number of flakes (tvtNF) for the four assemblages. ... 199 Table 7.3. Raw material by number of individual pieces for the four assemblages. ... 199 Table 7.4. Raw material by volume

(mm')

for the four

assemblages.

...199 Table 7,5. Non-gibber to gibber cortex ratio for complete flakes, complete tools and cores

combined..

...201

Table 7.6. Frequency and percentage (in _brackets) of clast silcrete complete flakes with

different amounts of

cortex..

...202

Table 7.7. Frequency and percentage

(in

brackets) of non-clast silcrete complete flakes with

different amounts of

cortex..

...202

Table 7.8. Frequency and percentage (in brackets) of clast silcrete complete flakes from the SQ

I

silcrete quarry with different amounts of

cortex..

...,..,....203 Table 7.9. Frequency and percentage (in brackets) of quartz complete flakes with different

amounts of

cortex.,

...204

Table 7.10. Length of complete non-cortical and cortical complete flakes from the

CNI

assemblage

...205

XII

Table 7. I

l.

Length of complete non-cortical and cortical complete flakes from the CN3

assemblage

...205

Table

7.l2.Length

of complete non-cortical and cortical complete flakes from the

KZI assemblage

...206

Table 7.13. Length of complete non-cortical and cortical complete flakes

fromtheKZZ assemblage

...206

Table 7.14. Results

of

least significance difference test (LSD) for complete cortical flake fength between the three major raw material categories

within

the four assemblages.. .207

Table 7.1 5. Results

of

least significance difference test (LSD) for cortical complete flake length with raw material class between

assemblages...,

^...207

Table 8. | . Frequency and proportion of clast silcrete core types per assemblage.. ... ...215

Table 8.2. Frequency and proportion of non-clast silcrete core types per assemblage... 216

Table 8.3. Frequency and proportion of quartz core types per assemblage...,,.217

Table 8.4.

MNF

(minimum _number of flakes) to core ratio per raw material and assemblage.. ...219

Table 8.5. Non-cortical _to cortical complete flake ratio per raw material and assemblage....220

Table 8.6. Non-cortical to cortical core ratio per raw material and assemblage....,... ...,...221

Table 8.7. Mean maximum length, width and thickness of clast silcrete cores in the four assemblages.

...

...223

Table 8.8. Mean maximum length, width and thickness of non-clast silcrete cores in the four assemblages.

...

...224

Table 8.9. Mean maximum length, width and thickness of quartz cores in the four

assemblages...

...225

Table 8.10. Results

of

least significance difference test (LSD) for cores on different raw materials in the CN

I assemblage..

...225

Table 8.1 I . Results

of

least significance difference test (LSD) for cores on different raw materials in the

KZI assemblage..

...226

Table 8. 12. Results

of

least significance difference test (LSD) for cores on different raw materials in the KZ2

assemblage..

...226

Table 8. 13. Results

of

least significance difference test (LSD) for clast silcrete cores between

assemblages...

...227

Table 8. 14. Results of least significance difference test (LSD) for non-clast silcrete cores between

assemb1ages,...

...228

Table 8.15. Results

of

least significance difference test (LSD) for quartz cores between

assemblages...

...228

Table 8. 16. Frequency and percentage (in brackets) of exterior platform surface of complete flakes per raw material for the

CNI assemblage...,

...230

Table 8.17. Frequency and percentage (in brackets) of exterior platform surface of complete flakes per raw material for the CN3

assemblage...

...230

Table 8.18. Frequency and percentage (in brackets) of exterior platform surface of complete flakes per raw material for the

KZI assemblage...

...231

Table 8.19. Frequency and percentage (in _brackets) of exterior platform surface of complete flakes per raw material for the KZ2

assemblage...

...231

Table 8.20. Mean length, width, thickness, platform width and platform thickness of clast silcrete complete flakes in the four

assemblages..

....234

Table 8.21 . Mean length, width, thickness, platform width and platform thickness of non-clast silcrete complete flakes in the four

assemblages.

^...235

XIII

Table 8.22. Mean length, width, thickness, platform width and platform thickness of quartz

complete flakes in the four assemblages (complete bipolar flakes not included)...236

Table 8.23. Results of least significance difference test (LSD) for complete flakes on different raw materials in the

CNI assemblage..

...237

Table 8.24. Results of least significance difference test (LSD) for complete flakes on different raw materials in the CN3 assemblage

.

...237

Table 8.25. Results of least significance difference test (LSD) for complete flakes on different raw materials in the

KZI assemblage..

^...238

Table 8.26. Results

of

least significance difference test (LSD) for complete flakes on different raw materials in the KZ2

assemblage..

^...238

Table 8.27. Results of least significance difference test (LSD) for clast silcrete complete flakes between

assemb1ages...

...240

Table 8.28. Results

of

least significance difference test (LSD) for non-clast silcrete complete flakes between

assemblages...

,...240

Table 8.29. Results of least significance difference test (LSD) for quartz complete flakes between

assemblages...,...

...241

Table 8.30. Clast silcrete platform type frequency and percentage

(in

brackets) for each

assemblage

...246

Table 8.31. Non-clast silcrete platform type frequency and percentage (in brackets) for each

assemblage

...246

Table 8.32. Quartz platform type frequency and percentage

(in

brackets) for each assemblage. 247 Table 8.33. Flake to

MNT

(minimum number of tools) ratio per raw material and assemblage. Proportionally more non-clast silcrete flakes are retouched into tools, followed by clast silcrete in three assemblages (except

KZI

where the quartz ratio is lower).. ...250

Table 8.34. Complete tool form frequency and percentage (in _brackets) per raw material type in the CN

I assemblage..

...251

Table 8,35. Complete tool form frequency and percentage (in brackets) per raw material type in the CN3

assemblage..

...252

Table 8.36. Complete tool form frequency and percentage (in brackets) per raw material type in the

KZI assemblage..

...253

Table 8.37. Complete tool form frequency and percentage

(in

brackets) per raw material type in the KZ2

assemblage..

...254

Table 8.38. Ranking of the proportion of scrapers per raw material and assemblage.. ...255

Table 8.39. Complete flake to complete tool scraper surface area

ratio.

...,....256

Table 8.40. Summary statistics for complete flake and complete scraper surface area...257

Table 8.41. Mean number of retouched quadrants on complete scrapers per raw material type in the four assemblages.

...

...258

Table 9.1. Arlefact frequency and percentage (in brackets) per raw material type in the SQI

assemblage

...264

Table 9.2. Complete tool frequency and percentage (in brackets) per raw material type in the

SQI assemblage.

...264

Table 9.3. Number of seed grinding artefacts recorded per assemblage for the Pine Point- Langwell study

area..

...268

Table 9.4. Radiocarbon determinations on charcoal from heat retainer hearths at the

ND location.

...276

XIV

Table 9,5, Radiocarbon dotsinir,inations

or

oharooal from heatretainer hearths at the SC Table 9.6" Minfunun numbEr of flakes per core for each nnajor raw material class in the Pine

Point-Langwell, Fowler.s G,ap and Bu.rkes Cave

ass:emblages..

-...".".,."...,.279 Table 9.7. Non-eortical oomptete flake to cofiioal eomplete flake ratio per

rawmabrial

arnd Tab-le 9.8. Non oortical eore to cqrtisal sor€ ratio por raw material and assornblage...,."...--..280 Tabfe 9.9. Flake to

tool

ratio per assenblage and rawmaterial typo...r..!,....,.!.,..,..,.,.,..,,,282 Table 9.10. ,Avoagenumber of retouubed quadrants on complote scrapors per fal,y material

type and

Table 9: I 1. Compleb

tsol

f,oim ftequency and percentage (in br,ackets)

for

clast silerete per Table 9.12, Complefts tool

frm,frequenoy

and pereentage (in brackets) for non-clast silereie Tab'le 9;1,3. Complets tool

fom

ftequenoy and percerrtage (inbrackets) f.or quarte per

XV