Impact of additive manufacturing on the Vietnamese transportation industry: An exploratory study

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Mohammadreza Akbari

^∗

, Nghiep Ha

SchoolofBusiness&Management(SBM),RMITUniversity,HoChiMinhCity,VietNam

a r t i c l e i n f o

Articlehistory:

Received5August2019

Receivedinrevisedform23October2019 Accepted2November2019

Keywords:

3Dprinting 3DP Logistics Transportation

Supplychainmanagement Additivemanufacturing Emergingmarket Economicgrowth Smartcity Vietnam

a b s t r a c t

Internationalﬁrms’activitiesandstructureshavebecomehighlycomplexasaresultofmanagingavast networkofentitieslocatedaroundtheworld.ComplextechnologysuchasAdditiveManufacturingor generallyacceptedas3Dprintinghasreceiveduniversalinterest.EconomicgrowthinVietnamgenerates uniqueinfrastructure,logisticsservicesandtransportationchallengesandopportunities.Logisticsarea criticallyimportantpriorityininternationaltrade,foremostinongoingregionaleconomicexpansion.

Themainobjectiveofthispaperistoexaminetheimpactandbenefitsofadvancedtechnology,affecting logisticsservicesandtransportationinVietnam.Thisresearchappliedadescriptivesurveymethodology togatherprimaryempiricaldataontheawarenessandthewillingnesstoadapttothetechnologyof organizationsfocusingonopportunitiesfortheVietnammarket.Theresultsindicatedthatorganizations haveapositiveattitudetowards3DPimpact.Thestrongerinfluencewasdiscoveredoncustomization, newcustomervalueproposition,thecompetitiveadvantage,andtransportationandstoragecostreduction.Vietnamiscurrentlyoneofthemostattractiveemergingmarketsintheworld.Thefindingsfrom thisresearchprovidetimelyandvaluablenewinsightsintothisphenomenon,asapotentialmecha- nismforassistingtherevolutionofthetransportationindustrytowardsimprovingtrafficcongestionand pollution.

org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Overthepastyears,theworldhasbeenexperiencingarapid growthofnewadvancedmanufacturingtechnologiessuchas;3D printing(3DP),alsorecognizedasAdditive Manufacturing(AM), whichengendersnewopportunitiesforthetransformationofman- ufacturingprocessesthroughoutthesupplychain(Despeisseetal., 2017;Steenhuis&Pretorius,2016).Thebeneﬁtsandsustainable impactsofsuchtechnologiesremainuncertainandindeterminate;

therefore,demanda comprehensiveunderstandingoftheinfor- mationﬂowsandtherelationshipsconcerningstakeholdersand productsinasupplychain(Evans,Bergendahl,Gregory,&Ryan, 2009).

Eversincethemid-1990s,supplychainmanagementhasbeen acknowledgedandclassiﬁedasanimportantandsigniﬁcantrole

∗Correspondingauthor.

E-mailaddresses:[email protected](M.Akbari), [email protected](N.Ha).

PeerreviewunderresponsibilityoftheKoreanAssociationofShippingand Logistics,Inc.

amongst the practitioners and experts (Akbari, 2013; Akbari &

Hopkins, 2016; König&Spinler, 2016), where, thecompetition today is realized within the supply chains (Christopher, 2016;

Schinckus,Akbari,&Clarke,2019).Asaresultoftherapidgrowth oftoday’ssupplychainandtheimportanceofeffectiveoperations, transportationandlogisticshadbeenunderscoredandgivenasub- stantialinterest(König&Spinler,2016;Chopra&Meindl,2015).

Alongsidethesigniﬁcanceofadvanceinnovation,thedistribu- tionofmanufacturingandsubsequentﬂowofgoodsandmaterials willbesubstantiallyaffectedbytheutilizationoftechnologiessuch as3DP(Boon&Wee,2018;Gebler,Uiterkamp,&Visser,2014).The 3DP,prizedasadvancedtechnology,isdescribedasaprocessof materialsbonding(layersuponlayers)toformathree-dimension (3D) objective (Despeisse et al., 2017). In the midst of advan- tagesofferedbythetechnology,“freedomofdesign”and“mass customization”arepositedtobesomeofthemostvaluedandrec- ognizedfeaturesof3DP(Ford&Despeisse,2016;Rayna&Striukova, 2014,pp.119–132;Petrick&Simpson,2013a;Berman,2012).

Durach, Kurpjuweit, and Wagner (2017), presented their researchpaperwithaninspirationscenariowhereavisittothe nearestshoptopurchaseaneededproductisnolongernecessary inthefuture;youonlyneedtobuythedigitalCADmodelonline

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajsl.2019.11.001

2092-5212©2019ProductionandhostingbyElsevierB.V.onbehalfofTheKoreanAssociationofShippingandLogistics,Inc.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCC BY-NC-NDlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

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andprinttheproductathome.However,therehasyettobean answerfortheconcern“whowillberesponsibleforthewarranty procedure”;theproductioncompany,printermanufacturer,orthe printingmaterials(ink)ﬁrms?

Ingeneral,3Dprintingisthetransformationofthedigitalworld into thephysical world, not only software usage.For instance, thetechnologyisalready beingutilizedtobuildasmall village of50 homesin LatinAmerica (Wang,2019).Boffey(2018)also reportedasimilarprojectintheDutchcityofEindhoven.Regard- ingthetransportationaspect,anelectriccarprojectnamedLSEV wassuccessfullyprintedusing3Dprinting(Ramirez,2018).Addi- tionally,a Lamborghini wassuccessfully printed by a Colorado physicistnamedSterlingBackus(Glon,2019).Thetechnologydoes notonlystopatdaily-lifeusagebutisalsoutilizedinhighlyintri- catedtransportation ﬁeldsuchas theaviationindustry. Airbus’

chieftechnologyofﬁcer,GraziaVittadini,attestedthat3Dprinting enablesthemanufacturingprocessof“highlycomplexpartsthat werejustnotachievablebymeansofstandardcutting”(Kottasová, 2018).Furthermore,3Dprintingisalsoemployedbythemilitary to“increasethe readiness ofmilitary vehicles andother units”

(Dorsey,2019).Withapotentialtochangeeveryknownaspectof thetransportationindustryaswellasthepotentialtoenablethe creationofproductsthatotherwisecannotbeproducedbythetra- ditionalmanufacturingprocess;itcanbearguedthat3Dprinting hasadirectconnectiontothetransportindustry.

Inrecentdecades,theeconomyofVietnamhasprogressedand advancedrapidly,asoftoday;Vietnampositionsitselfasoneofthe fastestdevelopingandoneofthemostattractiveemergingmarkets intheworld(CNBC,2015).Thecountryenticesahugeamountof ForeignDirectInvestment(FDI);US$14.5billionasofDecember 2015(CNBC,2015).Moreover,theCNBC(2015)informedof6.68 percenteconomicgrowthforVietnamin2015andfollowedby anaveragegrowthof7.26percentfortheperiodof2002to2010 (Clarke,Akbari,&Far,2017).Thisrapidgrowthisalsosustained by9.4percentinmanufacturing(CNBC,2015).Unsurprisingly,Ho ChiMingCity(HCMC)inVietnamisanticipatedtobethesecond fastest-growingeconomyinAsiaby2021(Tu,2017).

The current literature attested that since most studies concerning theimplications of 3DP for thelogisticsindustry were conductedinthespecificperspectivesofcompaniesandnotthe entirelogisticsindustry.Consequently,theknowledgeregarding theimpacts of3DP uponthemanufacturingand transport sec- torsareseverelylacking(Holmström,Holweg,Khajavi,&Partanen, 2016;Laplume,Petersen,&Pearce,2016).Forthatreason,themain objectivesofthispaperaretodiscover,scrutinizeanddocument thepotentialimpactandbenefitsofadvancedtechnology,suchas 3DP,upontheTransportationIndustryofVietnam.Whilethereare somestudymodelswhichexistindevelopedcountriespractising sustainablesupplychain,itmightnotbeapplicableorsuitablefor developingcountries.Companiesfromemergingeconomies,such asVietnam,encounterchallengesattributabletothemodestinfras- tructure,thelackofexpertise,andtheavailabilityandaccessibility oftechnologies.Evaluatinganddelvingintotheimpactsandbene- fitsof3DPinVietnam,wherealackofparticularacademicliterature exists,therefore,couldexpoundnewinsightsintoAdditiveManu- facturing(AM)aswellassustainablesupplychainchallengesnot limited toVietnam,but alsopossiblyfor emerging markets.To resolvethementionedissue,theresearcherswilltherebyconcen- trateonanalyzingthestatusofresearchinthisdiscipline,future opportunities,andfulfillingthefollowingresearchquestion;

RQ1.Withtheimminentchangestothesupplychain,whatisthe impactofadditivemanufacturing(3DP)onthetransportationindustry inanemergingmarket?

Keeping the objective of fulﬁlling the RQ1 in mind, the researchers will rigorously examine the current literature on 3DP, and Vietnam’s economic growth and transportation

infrastructurebeforepresentingtheresultsanddiscussionofthis study.

2. Overviewofliterature

2.1. Additivemanufacturing(AM)and3Dprinting(3DP)

TheideaofAMgraspedsubstantialattentionin2014,wherean electriccarwasprintedfortheﬁrsttimeinhistory(Durachetal., 2017).Theprintingprocesstookabout44h(Laliberte,2014).The 3Dprintingisaprocessofjoiningmatter,toproduceaproduct layer-by-layerusing3Dmodeldatainacomputer-aideddesignﬁle (Dwivedi,Srivastava,&Srivastava,2017);this“additive”manufac- turingisdifferentfromthetraditional“subtractive”manufacturing technologies(ASTMInternational,2012).The3Dprintinghasavery precisecontrolovertheshapeorsurfaceoftheobjects(Fernandez

&Coninck,2019);thusgrantstheuserstheability toconstruct highlyintricateandcomplexproductsfroma varietyofmateri- alsnamely,plastic,metal,ceramic,sandstone,resin,biomaterial andfoodsubstance(Rogers,Baricz,&Pawar,2016).Anauthorsuch asConner(2014),highlyvaluestheﬂexibilityof3DP;statingthis as“unparalleledlevelsofcustomization”,tothefactwhereeach printedcomponent/productcanbeanewunit,“oneofakind“.

Some of themost widely recognizedand utilized AM technologies are: digital light processing, stereolithography, fused deposition modelling, laser melting, and selective laser sinter- ing(Oettmeier&Hofmann,2016).AMisregardedbyresearchers asa disruptive productiontechnologywhich initiativesinnova- tionandﬂexiblemanufacturing,streamlinessupplychainplanning (Holmström,Liotta,&Chaudhuri,2017;KhorramNiaki&Nonino, 2017;Jonsson&Holmström,2016),diminutionoftransportation costsandleadtimeandwarehousespacerequirementreduction (Sasson&Johnson,2016).Furthermore,AMalsohasthepotential toengenderlesswastefulorevenacirculareconomy(Despeisse etal.,2017).3DPhasbeenprincipallyadoptedinindustrieswhere customization is compulsory and/or highly favourable namely;

“aerospace”and“medicine”(PwC,2013;Rengieretal.,2010)andin themorerecent“wood-furnituresector”ofItaly(Murmura&Bravi, 2018).

Forovertwocenturiesoffshoremanufacturingfromalloverthe worldhasbeneﬁttedfromeconomiesofscopeandscale(Wagner

&Walton,2016).Manufacturingfromremotemultiplelocations basedonmaterialsandpartscomingfromnumerousotherloca- tionsincludingsourcing,production,storage,andshippingprocess beforefinalproductassemblycanbecompleted(Thomas&Gilber, 2014).This,inturn,increasesthecostsofstorageandtransporta- tionaswellasextendingleadtimes.Toputthisinperspective, customersmaywaitforextendedperiodsoftimebeforereceiv- ingtheirfinal product(Thomas&Gilber,2014).However,with 3D printing technologyescalating singlelocation production of multiplepartsnotonlyshortensleadtimesbutreducesthechan- nelsofdistribution(Bogers,Hadar,&Bilberg,2016).Consequently, productscannowbemanufactured“on-demandandclosetothe locationwheretheactualdemandoccurs”whichleadsareduc- tiononleadtimes,lowerfreightvolumeandtransportationcosts (Bogersetal.,2016;Durachetal.,2017;Holmström&Gutowski, 2017; Kunovjanek& Reiner,2019).Anotheraspectof using3D printingistheopportunitytoprintsparepartsfortrucks,trains, aircraftandshipsonthegowithoutanydelay.Thiscanalsoleadto asignificantimprovementinflexibility,speedandcostforlogis- ticsand transportation.Thismethodhasbeenfirstusedby the aerospaceindustrywhenthetoolsandpartswerenotavailableon thespaceshipsduringtheirjourneyandittookmonthsandyears todeliverthem.Toillustratethis,Fig.1wasdeveloped.

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Fig.1.Impactof3DPonlogistics&supplychain.

Source:AdaptedfromAkbari(2018),Özceylan,C¸etinkaya,Demirel,andSabirlio˘glu(2018).

Notwithstandingit,risingpopularity,uponanexaminationinto thecontemporaryliteratureatteststhatmanyofthecurrentstudies concerning3DPinclinetodisregardAMeffectsonthesupplychain suchas inventoryand transportation costsalong with reduced risktosupplydisruption(Sidoryk&Tirougnanassambandamourty, 2018). Furthermore, 3DP technologies have been posited by EllingerandChapman(citedinDurachetal.,2017)tobesigniﬁcant andwell-timedaswellashavingextensiveimplicationsforbusi- ness(Oettmeier&Hofmann,2016;Steenhuis&Pretorius,2017), Bogersetal.(2016),SassonandJohnson(2016)andHolweg(2015) andhascastashadowonthematterandestablishedthatAMwould complementtoday’sproductionprocessinsteadofsupersedingthe traditionalmanufacturingprocessentirely,atleastfortheshortand medium-term.3DPwillcontinuetobeovershadowedbythetradi- tionalmanufacturingprocessinindustrysectorswherecostisone ofthekeyconsiderationsandcustomizationisrarelydemandedor unfavourable(PwC,2016).

In spite of the fact that 3DP has existed since the80s, the technologyis still in itsinfancy in both adoption and research (Schniederjans&Yalcin,2018).Ithasbeenscrutinizedandrightly pointed out by Weller, Kleer, & Piller (2015) that most of the contemporaryacademicresearchinthisareaistheoretical,lim- itedtopredicting/envisagingtheinfluenceofthisnewtechnology onmarketstructures.MatiasandRao(2015)alsoconcurredwith this viewpoint and added that thusfar theliterature hasbeen mainlytheoreticalratherthanfocusingonadoption.Theworkof MatiasandRao(2015)alsoexplicatedthatwhilemanystudieshave pointedoutthebenefitsof3DP,theyallassumedthewidespread adoptionofthetechnologyforbothrapidprototypingandfinished goodsmanufacturing.

3DPrintinghasadvancedfrommainlybeingutilizedforpro- totypingtoaformidablecontenderfortraditionalvolume/variety trade-offsinmanufacturing(Bozarth&Handﬁeld,2008).Inlightof that,numerousstudieshadsetouttoidentifythepotentialimpacts of3Dprintinguponthelogisticsandtransportationindustry.Exam- iningthestudyofWelleretal.(2015)and Petrickand Simpson (2013b),itcanbereasonedthatsomepotentialimpactsof3Dprint- ingare“greatercustomization”,“newcustomervalueproposition”

and“competitiveadvantage”asthetechnologyallowstheman- ufacturerstoengageinsituationswhereproductionvolumesare smallwhileend-usercustomizationrequirementishigh;aswell asenablestheproductionofpartsandfeaturesthatotherwisecan- notbe manufacturedbytraditional manufacturing.Researchers suchasKhajavi,Partanen,andHolmström(2014);Rehnbergand Ponte (2018) revealed potential impacts such as “spare parts availability”as3D printingcan disruptthe existingspare parts supplychain.Moreover,authorssuchasLerchandGotsch(2015);

Vendrell-Herrero,Bustinza,Parry,andGeorgantzis(2017)signiﬁed potential impact as “eliminating product ranges (user capabil- itytoprint athome)”ascustomers cannowprint thephysical versionofa chosenproductusingonline data;thus,permitting

the“reduction in transportationand storage costs” (McKinnon, 2016).Furthermore,potentialimpactssuchas“bettersupplychain responsetimes”,“greaterﬂexibilityandadaptability”and“reduce stock/wastageacrosssupplychain”wereobservedas3Dprinting shortenstheproductdevelopmentcycles(Rehnberg&Ponte,2018) lowerenergyusageandreduceCO2emission(Gebleretal.,2014).

Edwardsand Hopkins(2018),categorizedthecurrentprepa- rationactivitiesforadoptionofnewtechnologiessuchas3DPinto

‘Hiringnewstafforexperts’,‘Investinginupskillingcurrentstaffby providingin-housetrainingandworkshopsorResearchandDevel- opment(R&D)’,‘Informalorad-hocresearchandself-education’,

‘Establishingpartnershipswithspecialistﬁrms’,‘Formalresearch andInvestigation’,‘Contracting-outdevelopmentandimplementa- tion’,‘Negligibleinvestment’,and‘Nofutureinvestment’.Keeping thedimensionsinmind,theauthorsproceededtoreviewthecur- rentsituationofVietnameconomy,transportationinfrastructurein ordertorealizethepotentialimpactsof3DPinthetransportation industryinVietnam.

2.2. Vietnam

2.2.1. Economyandgrowth

VietnamisoneoftheelevenmembersoftheSouthEastAsia Communityand is recognizedas one of thefastest developing countriesintheworld(CNBC,2015).Vietnamisconsideredasan importantmarket andone ofthecrucial geopoliticalplayersof theSoutheastAsiaregion(NgocPhiAnh&Nguyen,2013).His- torically,Vietnam wasoneof thepoorest nations in theworld (Dollar,Glewwe,&Agrawal,2004);during1975tomid-1980,the failure ofthe Soviet-stylecentralplanning economic systemin Vietnam(MinhNgoc,2008)threatentheeconomy’sstabilityand thusdemandedaneconomicreform.TheVietnamesegovernment implementedthegreatlyneededeconomicreform attheendof 1986(MinhNgoc,2008)under thename“DoiMoi”(Nguyen &

Trinh,2018).Theeconomicreformwasproventobeacorrectand wisedecisionmadebytheVietnamesegovernment.The“DoiMoi”

haddrasticallychangedVietnam’seconomy;fromseverestagna- tion inthe 1980s toan averageGPD percapita annual rateof around7percent(Nguyen,Linh,&Nguyen,2013)andaneconomic growthrateof6.66percent(Nguyen &Trinh,2018).TheViet- namLivingStandardSurveys(VHLSS)(citedinNguyenetal.,2013) alsopublishedthatthepovertyratehadsharplydeclinedduring the1993–2008period(58downto14percent).Recognizingthe potentialadvantagesoftheForeignDirectInvestment(FDI)could provide;theVietnamesegovernmentlooseneditsinvestmentpol- icyandpermitted100%foreign-ownedinvestments(Osman-Gani, Ahmed,&Ling,2001).

Consequently,Vietnamhasbecomeoneofthemostattractive emergingmarkets(Akbari,Clarke,Dang-Pham,&Nkhoma,2017) intheworld;anenticingmassiveamountofFDI;$14.5billionasof December2015(CNBC,2015).Furthermore,Vietnamhasbecome

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Table1

Vietnaminformation.

LogisticsPerformanceIndex (LPI)(outof160countries)

39 Rank Vietnam’s

InfrastructureQuality (outof144countries)

QualityofRoads 89

QualityofAirTransportInfrastructure 86 QualityofPortInfrastructure 77 QualityofRailroadInfrastructure 52 OverallQualityofInfrastructure 79 Vietnamexpected

logisticscostallocation

Transportation 59%

Others 41%

Source:AdaptedfromAnh(2018),Lotova(2017),andWorldBank(2018).

thesecond-largestcoffeeproducerintheworld,oneofthetop- tengarmentexportersandaleadingfurnitureexporter;high-tech productsarenowbeingmanufacturedanddevelopedinthecoun- trybymultinational organizationssuchas Samsung,Intel,IBM, Fujitsu,NokiaandCanon(Nguyen&Robinson,2015).Intermof logisticsdevelopment and investment, thesector hasattracted many Third-PartyLogistics (3PL)multinational companies such asDHL,Schenker,Kuehne+Nagel,andGemadept(Tan,Hilmola,

&Binh,2016).Despitetheastoundingrecoveryandgrowth,Tan etal.(2016)positedthathighinﬂationrateandthecontinuously depreciatingcurrency(Dong)arethetwomainlimitationsofViet- nam.However,theworkofNguyenandTrinh(2018)suggested otherwise;stating thattheinﬂation rateiscontrolledandatan acceptablelevel.

2.2.2. TransportationinfrastructureinVietnam

The US Chamber of Commerce (cited in Assavavipapan &

Opasanon,2016)dividedthebasicinfrastructureofacountryinto fourdifferentdomains,comprisingenergy,water,transportation andbroadband.Respectively,eachcomponentisfundamentalfor thenationaleconomicprosperity,businesscompetitivenessand welfare(Assavavipapan&Opasanon,2016).Forthatreason,agood- qualityinfrastructureisvitalforoveralleconomicgrowth(World BankcitedinBbaale,2018;Ismail&Mahyideen,2015;Escribano, Guasch,&Pena,2010).

ThepreferredmodeoftransportationforthemajorityofViet- nameseisthemotorcycle(accountsfor95percentoftotalvehicles) (Le&Blum,2013),andthenumberofregisteredmotorcyclesin 2013amountedtoabout37million(Iversetal.andtheMinistryof TransportcitedinLe&Blum,2013).Tu(2017)reportedthatHCMC isprojectedtobethefastest-growingcityinAsiaby2021.Thepre- dictedgrowthisexpectedtoaccompanybynumerouscrippling trafﬁccongestions;asHCMCisnotoriousforhavingahistoryof weakandnowoutdated,infrastructure(SaigonNews,2018).

Thelimited,inadequateusabletransitspacewithinandaround cities,inadditiontotheincreasingdemandforroaduseinareasthat lackwell-plannedurbansystemscoupledwithscantalternative modesoftravel(subways,trains,trams,ormetrolines)arepro- posedtobetheprimaryreasonsforthetrafﬁcbottleneck(Akbari

&Hopkins,2019).Thelimitationhasbeenreﬂectedinthework ofYeanand Das(citedinDang&Yeo,2018)whichestablished thatVietnamhassufferedfrompoorqualitytransportationinfras- tructure,hasledtohighlogisticsexpensesandcompetitiveness reductioninthelogisticsindustry.

Vietnamqualityoftheinfrastructureiscurrentlyranked89thin qualityofroads,86thinqualityofairtransportinfrastructure,77th inqualityofportinfrastructure,52ndinqualityofrailroadinfras- tructureand79thintheoverallqualityofinfrastructure(Lotova, 2017;AustralianTrade&InvestmentCommission,n.d).Further- more,Vietnamranked39thof160countriesintermoflogistics performanceindex(LPI)comparingtoSingaporeat7thplaceand Malaysiaatthe41stplace(WorldBank,2018)(seeTable1).

Fig.2.Vietnamexportingandimportingaveragecost.

Source:adaptedfromThu(2012).

Fig.3.Vietnamexportingandimportingaveragedays.

Source:AdaptedfromThu(2012).

Accordingly,Vietnam’saveragecostforexportingandimport- ingacontainerwasUS$580andUS$670,muchhighercompared toUS$456andUS$439forSingapore,andUS$450andUS$435for Malaysia(Thu,2012).Additionally,Thu(2012)alsoreportedthat averagetimeforexportingandimportingacommodityforViet- namwas22and21days;incontrasttoSingapore(5and4days), andMalaysia(17and14days)(seeFigs.2and3).

To remaincompetitive, great investmentin infrastructure is desperately needed and highly favoured. Granting large scale infrastructural projects for publicservice are exceptionally dif- ficultto commence (Narayanaswami, 2017), Thanh and Dapice (2009)attestedthatthesignificantinfrastructurechallengefacing Vietnamisnotinadequatelevelsofinvestmentbutratherinvest- mentinefficiency.Nonetheless,theVietnamesegovernmentiswell awareoftheimportanceoflogisticscentresinthelogisticsindustry inparticularandeconomicgrowthingeneral;assuch,amasterplan forthedevelopmentofanationwidenetworkoflogisticscentres wasapprovedin2015(Pham,MA,&Yeo,2017).

3. Methodology

The research follows a three-step approach to identify the impactof additivemanufacturing,especially 3DP,onthetransportationindustry inVietnam.We adoptedthefollowing three steps(seeFig.4).

Step1.Thefirststepforanyresearchpaperswastoidentifyand reviewtheavailableliterature(Akbari,2018;Denyer&Tranfield, 2009).Aliteraturereviewconsidereda methodologytoidentify andanalyzetheavailablearticlessystematically,toproduceaclear pictureandidentifyagapforfutureresearchinadisciplinearea (Denyer&Tranfield,2009,chap.39;Jafari,2015;Seuring&Müller,

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Fig.4.Researchmethodologysteps.

Source:AdaptedfromAkbari(2018)andAkbariandHopkins(2019)

Table2

Summaryofonlinesurveyquestions.

Demographicinformation Gender,age,position,companysize Additivemanufacturing/3DP Currentuse,impacttotheorganizations,

partnersandsector,predictionimpactof3DP intheindustry,currentpreparation,andfuture investmenton3DP

2008).Asaresult,anevaluationoftheexistingliteratureisincor- poratedastheinitialstepinthisinvestigation.

Step 2. In the second step, a descriptive online survey was implementedtocollectaninstant“snapshot”ofthephenomenon exploredfromadiversepopulation(Galliers,1990).Thedescriptive surveyenablestheinvestigatorstoeffectivelysourcetheopinions, attitudes,andpreferencesofparticipants(McMurray,2004).Incon- ductingthisinvestigation,anonlinesurveyenabledtheresearchers toassociateimmediatelywithseniormanagers,CEOs,andDirectors of65transportationcompaniesinVietnam;onequestionnairefrom eachcompany.Additionally,duetothefearofleakingoutbusi- nesssecretthroughinformationsharing,Vietnameseﬁrmsusually shareinformation withtheir strategicpartners (Pham, Nguyen, Mcdonald,&Tran-Kieu,2019;Shieh-Liang,Tran,&Ha,2016).Thus, severelylimitingthedatacollectionprocess.

Asetof20questionsincludedintheonlinesurveyfeatureda rangeofmultiple-choice,Likertscale,andopen-endedtextﬁeld questions(seeTable2).

TheonlinesurveytoolQualtricswasadoptedastheresearch platformforthisinvestigation,anddatawerebundledintoSPSS forexaminationandanalysis.Torecognizeanyandallrelationships thatmightexistinthecollecteddata,amixtureofanalyticaltech- niquesincludingdescriptivestatisticsand linearregressionwas applied.Furthermore,aMonteCarlosimulationwasconductedto generatedistributionsoffeasiblevaluesforcorrelationanalysis.

MonteCarlosimulationsarecomputationalalgorithmsbasedon theuseofrandomsampling(Cho&Liu,2018;Metropolis&Ulam, 1949).

Step3.Intheﬁnalstepforthisinvestigation,afteranalyzingand examiningallofthedatausingdiverseanalyticalmethodsinwhich

Fig.5. Proportionofrespondentsbygender.

twooutcomeswereidentiﬁed:(a)researchgaps,and (b)future researchdirectionsfor3DPanditsimpactonlogisticsservicesand transportationindustriesinanemergingmarket.

Permission was approved as a part of another study and acknowledgedbyRMITUniversity(HCMC,Vietnam)tocontactthe seniormanagers,CEOs,andDirectorsofcompaniesinVietnam.A clearstatementwasincorporatedtoclarifythatparticipationwas completelyvoluntarywithnorequestforanypersonaldetails,and participantscouldwithdrawfromtheonlinesurveyatanystage.

ThesurveywasinitiallydevelopedinEnglishandthentranslated intoVietnamese.Theparticipantshadtheoptiontochooseanyof theirpreferredlanguages.

4. Results

A sample of 64 survey responseswas collectedfrom senior managers,CEOs,anddirectorsintheTransportationandLogistics IndustryofVietnam.Fig.5illustratedthatthemajorityofpartici- pantsareMale(52percent)followedbyFemale(45percent),with 1percentOtherand1%Prefernottosay.Intermoftherespondents ages,Fig.4demonstratedthatasigniﬁcantportion(84percent)of therespondentsare35yearsoldoryounger(seeFig.6)whichhave highpotential/probabilityongeneratingoradaptingnewidea/3DP solutionastheyoungeradultshavebeenproventoadaptmore

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Fig.6. Proportionofrespondentsbyage.

Fig.7.Experienceinsupplychainprofessions.

Fig.8.Companysize.

quicklytotechnologycomparingtotheolderadults(Zickuhrand MaddencitedinVanVolkom,Stapley,&Amaturo,2014).

Themajorityoftherespondentshave lessthanﬁveyears of experience(80percent),followedby12percentbetween5–10 years,5percentbetween11and20andonly3percentpossesses morethan20yearsofexperience(seeFig.7).Theseﬁguressuggest thattheindustryiscurrentlydominatedbyalargepoolofyoung workforcewhicharelikelytohavehighmotivationandcontinu- ouslyexpandingmindsettowardstheirindustrydespitethelacking experience(Minh,2016).However,theycanacceleratethespeedof learningbyworkinginawell-experiencedworkingenvironment.

Despitethemajorityoftherespondentspossesslittleindustry’s experience,itcanbeobservedthat41percentoftherespondents arealreadyworkingforlargeﬁrms,31percentworkinsmallenter- prises,17percentworkformicroand11percentworkforthe mediumﬁrm(seeFig.8).

Accordingto theworkof Cuong, Sang, and Anh (2007),the deﬁnitionsofcompanysizeinVietnamareasfollow:microenter- prises(lessthantenpersons),smallenterprises(10–49persons) andmedium-sizedenterprises(50–299persons).Thismeantahigh

Fig.9.Usageof3DPtechnology.

Fig.10.Organizationalimpactof3DPinthenexttenyears.

percentageoftheyoungworkforcearecurrentlyworkingforlarge andmediumfirmswhichleadtoahigheropportunitytobepartof theprofessionalprocedureandsophisticatedtechnologicalfacil- ity.Furthermore,largefirmscouldhavestrongfinancialstatusto investforbetterproductionandreducecost.Therefore,theymight haveahigherchancetoconsideradoptingnewtechnologytotheir systems.

Surprisingly,Fig.9demonstratedthatmorethan66percent oftheparticipantsvotedthattheirorganizationscurrentlyhave nousagefor 3DP,23%votedfor thecontradictory while11per centdo notknowwhetherthetechnologyisbeingusedornot;

indicatingthatmorethanhalfoftheinterviewedﬁrmsfoundno clearusagetotheirsystemsorcost-relatedmatters.Asimilarpat- terncanbeobservedeveninChina,aneighbouringcountryand aglobalpowerhouse.Playersinthesupplychainandthegeneral publicarereportedtobeunclearof3DPabilitiesandlimitations (IpsosBusinessConsulting,2015).

Consequently,thedatabehaviourinFig.10canbesomewhat explainedbythisphenomenon.Fig.10presentstheviewpointof therespondentsregardingtheimpactof3DPupontheirorganiza- tionsinthenexttenyears.Nearlyhalfoftherespondents(43per cent)deemedthat3DPwillengenderminortonoimpactwhile17 percentbelievedthattherewillbesigniﬁcanttogreatimpactupon theindustry.Theremaining40percentconsideredthattherewill beonlysomeimpactcausedby3DP.Nevertheless,duetothelack ofawarenessandusageof3DP,itcanbeattestedthattheresultin Fig.9isratherpredictivethanbasedonconcreteevidence.

Itisalsoworthmentioningthatwiththegrowthoftechnology andmediacoveragecoupledwithfavourablepoliciesfromtheChi- nesegovernment,3DPindustryofChinaisexpectingtobevalued at9BillionYuaninthenextfewyears(IpsosBusinessConsulting, 2015).Hence,thereisapossibilitythatthepercentageof3DPusage along withthefuture standpointconcerningtheimpactof3DP

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Fig.11. Relationshipbetweencurrentusageof3DPandorganizationalimpactforthenext10years.

Fig.12.RandomsampledistributionsbyMonteCarlossimulation(N=1000).

oftheVietnameseﬁrmswouldchangeinthenearfuture when subjectedtothesameorsimilarconditions.

Toexaminetherelationshipbetweenthecurrentusageof3DP andorganizationalimpactforthenexttenyears(where1=“No”and 2=“Yes”),astandardlinearregressionwasexecuted,andanega- tivecorrelationof-0.251wasidentiﬁed.Thisnegativecorrelation demonstratesthattheevolvinglevelofcurrentusageof3DPsand itsimpactpredictionforthenexttenyears(seeFig.11).

AMonteCarlosimulationwasalsoperformed,forfurthervalida- tionofpossibleoutcomevaluesoftherandomsamplesgenerated forboth“currentuseof3DP”and“organizationalimpactforthe nexttenyears”tohighlighttherobustdatapoolandremedythe smallsample size.Thisdisplaysthedistributionof thecorrela- tioncoefﬁcientbetween“currentuseof3DP”and“organizational impactforthenexttenyears”for1000replications(seeFig.12).

Thisdistributionindicatesarobustnegativerelationshipbetween thetwovariables.

Fig. 13 demonstrated the perceived impacts of 3DP in the industryfromtheintervieweesperspective.Themajorityofthe respondents believed in “Greater customization/new customer valueproposition/competitiveadvantage”(23%),“Reducedtrans- portationandstoragecosts”(20%)followedby“Greaterﬂexibility and adaptability”(16%) and “Reduce stock/wastageacrosssupplychain”(15%).Unexpectedly,mostoftherespondentsdidnot thinkthat3DPwillenable“Bettersupplychainresponsestimes”

and“Eliminatingproductranges”despitebelievinginthereduc- tionofstock/wastage,variouscostsandenhancedﬂexibilityand adaptability.

Thisresult issomewhatdifferentfromtheresultofthesur- veyinAustraliaorganizedbyEdwardsandHopkins(2018).Both respondentsfromthetwosurveysagreedthat“greatercustomization”, “reduced transportation and storage costs” and “reduce

Fig.13.Impactof3DPintheindustry.

stock/wastageinthesupplychain”arethestrongestimpactsof 3DPupon theindustry.However,theVietnameseﬁrmsdidnot believeinthe“Bettersupplychainresponsestimes”and“Elimi- natingproductranges”and“Sparepartavailability”asopposedto theAustralianﬁrms.

ThisisaninterestingperspectiveastheapplicationofAMwill impactthemanufacturing,partsandcomponentproductionsys- tems can benefit many industries includingmedical, aerospace andmore.TheimplicationforAMintologisticsandsupplychain canbesignificantfor bothupstreamanddownstream keyplay- ers.Progressofmaterialdevelopmentwillmake adifferenceto intheimplementationofAMinproductionandespeciallylogis- ticswherethemachinerywilltransfertotheirfinallocation,the designwillalsotransferelectronically,andthemovementofmate- rialswillbethemostsignificantpartoftransportation (Silva &

Rezende,2013).Thiswillresultinasigniﬁcantreductioninlogis- ticsactivitieswheretheendcustomer’sproductscanbeproduced inanylocation,resultinginacostreductionforbothtransporta- tionandwarehousing.Thematerialsorproductswilldirectlymove fromsupplier totheend customerwithout anyneed forother supplychainplayers.Thisnewmodelwillcreateacuteopportu- nitiestodevelopnewproductsandconsumerdistributioncentres willberepositionedtoremotelocations.Withthatbeingsaid,the outcomeofFig.13engenderedaninterestingquestion“whydid theintervieweesbelieveinreducedcostsandwastageaswellas greatercustomizationbutdisdainintheideaofbettersupplychain responsestime?”. Forthatreason,furtherexaminationishighly recommended.

Tofurthertheexamination,andunderstandthecurrentstateof 3DPinVietnam,therespondentswereinquiredabouttheprepa- rationfortheemergenceof3DP.Theanswersrevealedthat19per centoftherespondentswouldconductformalresearch,15percent

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Fig.14.Preparationforthecontinuedemergenceof3DP.

Fig.15. Predictionforfutureinvestin3DPinthenexttenyears.

willhireexperts,12percentself-taught/adhocresearchand10%

willco-operatewithspecialistfirms(seeFig.14).Moreover,only10 percentofthefirmsrespondedthattheywouldinvestinupskilling internally.Inanotherviewpoint,21percentoftherespondents willcommitnopreparation,and10percentwillinvestnegligible resources.Theresultsseemtodivideintotwofactions.Ontheone hand,firmsthatprepareforthe3DPemergenceseemtoheadfor thedirectionofoutsourcingthepreparation tothethirdparties ratherthanpreparingforthetechnologythemselves.Ontheother hand,otherfirmsseemtobewaitingforthetechnologytomature beforecommittingresources.

TheoutcomesinFig.15isforeseeableandexpectedsincethe majority of the respondents commit minimal resources or no preparation.Assuch,itisnotunsurprisingtoseethat60percent oftherespondentsallocatelittletonoinvestmentfollowedby26%

ofsomeinvestmentandonly14percentadministersigniﬁcantto extensiveinvestment.

5. Discussion

3Dprintingexpressedasaprocessusingdigitaldataforcre- ating physical objects (Rengier et al., 2010). Authors such as Rehnberg and Ponte (2018) forecasted that technology would disrupttheexistingsupplychainandsupplanttraditionalmanu- facturing(Rehnberg&Ponte,2018).Moreover,theimplementation of3DPsupportsthereductionintransportationandwarehousing costs,CO2emissions,energyusage(Gebleretal.,2014),andper- hapsoutsourcingthecostofproductiontotheendcustomer(Rayna

&Striukova,2014,pp.119–132).

Theoutcomesfromthisstudyestablishedthat66percentof thetransportationfirmsdo notuse3DPand23 percentofthe respondentsspecifiedthattherewouldbenofutureimpactonthe transportationindustry.Pastresearchinothercountrieshasiden- tifiedtheleastimpactof3DPontheindustries.Theresultsalign witharecentwell-conductedsurveyinAustraliabyEdwardsand Hopkins(2018).

Despite59percentoftheindustrypractitionersindicatingthat theyhavelittlerelevantworkingexperience,41percentofthem are workingfor large transportationﬁrms. Additionally, only a

fewrespondentsagreethat3DPhasagreatimpactonthetrans- portationindustrywhilemostoftherespondentsbelievethatthe industrywillexperienceonlyminorornoimpact.Whilethiscon- tradictsmuchofthepastresearch,thesampleagewasrepresenting ayounggeneration.Hence,itissigniﬁcanttopursuefurtherinves- tigationbeforeanygeneralizedconclusioncanbedrawn.

Intheprocessofexaminingdatabytheageoftherespondents, itwasalsodiscoveredthatmorethan80percentoftherespon- dentsareyoungerthan35yearsoldandhavelessthanfiveyears ofrelevantexperienceinthetransportationfield.Forthatreason, itcanbepresumedthattheindustryisstillgrowing.Furthermore, thehighestlevelofadoptionfor3DPwasobservedinthelargesize transportationfirms,whichledtotheauthors’conclusionthatthe industryisgrowingbutisstillintheearlystageofthedevelopment.

Assuch,furtherresearchandinvestigationarerequired.

Manyfactorsareaffectingthedatarepresentation,suchascon- text,geographicallocation,culture,economics,andmanymore.

ThefollowingstudiesconductedinthecontextofotherAsiancoun- triesofferinvaluableinsightsconcerningtheobservedoutcomes.

TheIndianmarketissensitivetowardspricesof3DPtechnology, whichinturnintensifiesresistantamongindustrialconsumersto optfor3DP(Venkateswaran,2015).TheKoreanmarketreported thelackoftalentpoolintheworkforce,low-quality3DPequipment and infrastructure as wellas insufficienttechnology capability (Ng,Karlsson,&Kim,2017a).TheChinesemarketishinderedby insufficienttechnologicalunderstanding, awareness,inadequate technologycompetencyaswellasahighcosttointroducethetech- nology(Ipsos BusinessConsulting, 2015).Furthermore,the3DP adoptionintheAsia-Pacificcountriesisbeinghampereddue to deficientcapitalinvestment,combinedwiththeinvestors’“wait andsee”attitude(Ng,Zhu,Law,&Niyomsriskul,2017b).

Overall,theinsightscollectedfromrespondentsindicatedthe leastpracticesin 3DP,whichwasalsofoundtheleastexpected toimpacttheVietnamesetransportationindustryoverthenext decade.Inthecontextofpreliminaryactionsbeingtaken,nofurther actionalongwiththeformalresearchorinvestigation,andnew hireswerethemostcommon,signifyingthatmostﬁrmsarenot currentlyengagingtheirstaffwithmoreinhouseeducationand training.

6. Conclusion

Intheeraoftechnologicaldisruption,chaoticdemandambi- guity, varying consumers’behaviour and external riskssuchas pollutionandclimatechangewhichsubstantiallyimpactstheefﬁ- cientsupplyofrawmaterialsandservices,3DPhasthepotential totransformtheentirelogistics,transportationindustry.Withthe extensiveacceptanceof3DPbybusinesses,today’stransportation is ina transformationalphase,and thedigitalmodernization is revolutionizingthelandscapeofexistingbusinessmodelsglobally.

Thisstudyfocusedonthepossibilityofmakingmajortransforma- tivechangesbylookingintotheimpactofadditivemanufacturing, especially3DPinthetransportationindustryinVietnam.RQ1set outtoestablishthecurrent practicesandanyplan forusingor implementing3DP.

Theresultsofthesurveysuggestedthatorganizationshavea positiveattitudetowards3DPimpact;however,despite77percent ofthepractitionersindicatingafutureimpact,only23percentare currentlyusingthetechnology.3DPisidentiﬁedastheleastantici- patedtechnologyinthetransportationindustry.Itwasinteresting tonotethat11percentofparticipantsdonotknowwhethertheir companyisusingthetechnology.

Theimpactof3DPwasfoundtobestrongerongreatcustomiza- tion/newcustomervalueproposition,thecompetitiveadvantage andtransportationandstoragecostreduction.However,themost

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7. LimitationsandFutureResearchDirections

Thecollectedsamplesrepresentingsomeoftheagegroupsand industrycategoriesanditwassmall,futureinvestigationneeded tocollectmoresamplesacrossthedifferentcitiesandregionstobe abletomakeamoremeaningfuljudgementandconsideration.

Theresearchersintendtoconductacomprehensivestructured literaturereview from theleading journals in thediscipline to acknowledgeadeepunderstandingofwhattrendshaveoccurred inadditivemanufacturing.Thestructuredliteraturereviewwhich isincreasingamongresearchersasasystematicmethodforgain- ingnewinsightsfromhistorical data,andassist theresearchers formulatingageneralstatementofthecurrenttechnologicalphe- nomenon.

Futureresearch willmagnifytheconsideration forinvolving AdditiveManufacturingcompaniesandtheircontributiontothe GrowthDomesticProduct(GDP)Indexindevelopedandemerging countries.

Lastly, the research team also intends to extend the cur- rentinvestigation toother emerging technologies, suchas IoT, Blockchain,BigData,Dronesinotheremergingmarkets,sothat technologicalpracticesin diversecultures and locationscanbe evaluatedandcompared.

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