INSECT PESTS OF COTTON IN THE ORD RIVER IRRIGATION AREA
(Continued from page 86)
of which are highly favoured by this pest.
Whole or part of the boll may be destroyed, depending on the size of the boll and the feeding and tunnelling activity of the larvae. The resulting neatly-cut circular tunnels through the lint and carpel walls are characteristic of pink bollworm attack.
The net result of all this activity is t h a t the lint is cut, weakened and discoloured and hence greatly reduced in value or even completely destroyed due to later fungal infection. Damaged seed suffers loss in weight, oil content and germination capacity.
The larva usually passes through four instars, finally pupating in a cocoon often within the remains of a seed in the boll.
At the completion of pupation, the newly- emerged adult leaves the boll by means of a previously constructed tube to the exterior. The moth is most active a t night, usually remaining hidden during the day.
Under normal conditions the total life cycle of the pest occupies three to four weeks so t h a t a number of generations are possible throughout the year.
Cotton Looper
Anomis planalis (Swin.)
This pest was formerly known as Antar- chaea chionosticta Ath. but has recently been redescribed under the present name.
The larvae of this pest are usually only of major importance in young cotton dur- ing the early part of the wet season, when a severe infestation can result in death of the plants due to continual defoliation and destruction of the growing points.
Description and Damage
The moths are generally pinkish-brown in colour and measure about an inch across the outstretched wings. The forewings are brown, sometimes with a pinkish or purplish tinge and usually marked with two, but occasionally one or three, white spots towards the front margins. The hind wings are ochreous-coloured near the body, suffusing into a broad purplish- brown band towards the hind margins.
The eggs are greenish blue in colour and similar in size and shape to those of the climbing cutworm although more flattened.
They are mainly laid on t h e young leaves and squares a t the growing points.
The larvae have a general green colora- tion and usually show four black spots on the dorsal surface of each segment and a number of others along each side. One or more whitish or light yellow stripes are often present on each side of the dorsal line, extending the length of the body.
Just prior to pupation, their colour often changes to a purplish-green. When fully grown, the larvae measures approximately H in.
They are mainly leaf-feeders and severely damaged plants present a very ragged appearance. Occasionally, young squares and floral parts are attacked but no injury to bolls has so far been recorded in the area.
Spur-Throated Locust
Austracris guttulosa (Walk.)
Although migatory swarms of this locust appear at certain times in the area, most damage to cotton is caused by the more solitary "grasshopper" type which is active throughout the season.
Description and Damage
The adult measures from 2 in. to 3 in.
with wings folded and 4 in. to 5 in. across the outstretched wings and possesses a characteristic spur under the neck.
Spur-throated locust.
The general coloration of the adult may be green or brown or a combination of both. A lighter coloured narrow band usually extends along the length of the insect on the dorsal side. The forewings are mottled with fairly distinct -black, brown or greenish areas which decrease in size and intensity towards the wing tips.
120 Journal of Agriculture Vol 5 No 2 1964
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The hind wings are unmarked and clear except for a greyish-blue suffusion which decreases in intensity away from the body.
The eggs are laid in the soil and nymphs hatching in November and December may damage the freshly planted cotton.
Significant loss of young plants can occur due to stem girdling and felling of the plants by nymphs and adults of this pest.
Even if not killed, injured plants may suffer a severe setback to growth due to continual destruction of foliage, growing points and fruiting parts.
Austracris proved to be an important pest of young cotton at Kununurra last wet season when constant invasions of the crop occurred from surrounding weed- infested land and crop and barrier spray- ing was necessary.
MINOR PESTS Cotton Semi-Loopcr
Cosmophila flava (F.)
The adult moth is easily distinguished by the shape and markings of the fore- wings. The outside edges of these show a definite scalloped effect. The section of the forewing nearest to the body has a honey-brown or yellowish ground colour, marked with fine, irregular brown lines and a white spot; the remaining half shows irregular dark brown and purplish bands.
The hind wings are fawn or straw-coloured near the body suffusing into dark brown or grey areas towards the hind margins.
The eggs are usually laid singly on the leaves. The larva is yellowish-green with a number of lighter coloured lines extend- ing along the body on the dorsal side.
When fully grown it is about l i in. long.
The larva also has four pairs of prolegs or
"false legs," on the 4th, 5th and 6th and last body segments, the caterpillar moving in a semi-looping manner.
Damage by the larvae is confined to the leaves, which become very ragged during a severe attack.
Red Spider
Tetranychus telarius (L.)
Red spider is a widespread pest but is only important in the area during the dry season, when severe damage to cotton can be caused.
Adults are minute, oval-shaped mites with eight legs and a yellowish, greenish or red coloration, often with dark-coloured spots on the back. The larvae are similar but only possess six legs,
Both stages feed mainly on the lower leaf surfaces, sucking the sap and causing the leaves to become bleached and shrivelled. Infested foliage also becomes covered with fine webbing. A severe in- festation can rapidly build up due to the high reproduction rate of this pest.
Cotton Aphid
Aphis gossypii Glov.
Cotton aphid is another cosmopolitan pest which can cause significant damage throughout the year but is particularly troublesome during the dry season.
These small, soft-bodied insects con- gregate mainly on the young foliage, grow- ing points and squares, their sap-sucking activities weakening the plant and causing the edges of affected leaves to curl down- wards. During a severe infestation, which can rapidly build up, the foliage of the cotton plants becomes covered with sticky honeydew. This interferes with the plant's respiration and also attracts sooty mould which may cause discoloration of the lint.
Some biological control is exerted by larvae and adults of ladybird beetles which are common in the area.
Hairy Leaf-Eating Caterpillar Acontia congenita Hamps.
This pest may also be known as Xanthodes congenita (Hamps.) (Common, personal communication 1963).
The moth of this species is a similar size and shape to Prodenia, measuring approximately l i in. across the wings. The forewings of the female are yellowish in colour each wing having a central, longi- tudinal purplish-brown band extending from a short distance away from the body, to the outside edge, which is also a brown colour. There is a series of brown spots near the front margin of each forewing.
The hind wings are pearly-white with a light orange diffusion and a narrow brown fringe at the hind margins. The forewings of the male are more cream-coloured and lack the central band of the female.
123
The larva is a semi-looper with well- developed prolegs on the 5th, 6th and last body segments and measures about 1£ in.
when fully grown. The general colour is usually green which is darker on the dorsal surface but may become purplish- coloured when mature. In some specimens, a yellow band extends down the centre of the dorsal surface, with a series of black tubercles and yellow spots each side of it and in the case of the abdominal segments clearly-defined black U-shaped markings;
there is also a prominent red band across the last segment. In other specimens, how- ever, these markings and central band are indistinct or lacking and the tubercles are lighter coloured. The larva is thinly covered with fine long hairs.
Cotton Leaf Perforator
Bucculatrix gossypii Turn.
The pale green larvae, measuring only about i in. in length, commence attacking the cotton leaf by mining between the upper and lower surfaces but later eat out small patches of leaf tissue, thus producing a somewhat skeletonised effect. The pupa is enclosed in a small, white ribbed cocoon attached to the plant. .
The adult is a small, creamy-grey moth with a wing span of about 3/16 in. Both wings, but particularly the hind ones, are densely fringed.
Cotton Seed Bug or Coon Bug
Oxycarenus luctuosus Montr.
The adult is about i in. long with black and white markings. Numerous adults and nymphs, the latter being reddish-coloured, often inhabit opened bolls where they feed on the seeds, reducing the oil content and germination capacity and causing staining of the lint due to excrement; further staining is caused by the crushing of their bodies during picking operations.
Cotton Stainer Bugs
Dysdercus spp.
The adults are about i in. long and are reddish-brown in colour, usually with a prominent black spot, band or line in the centre of each forewing. These pests suck the contents of the green bolls, resulting in the staining and weakening of the lint
inside, reducing the germination of the seeds and causing premature opening of the bolls.
Jassids
Austroasca sp.
These pests, also known as leafhoppers, are pale yellowish-green winged insects, about i in. long and capable of moving sideways as well as jumping and flying.
They feed by sucking the sap from the leaves, which generally weakens the plant.
Severe infestations, which can rapidly build up if not controlled, cause the edges of affected leaves to curl downwards and the leaves to become reddened.
Cotton Plant Bugs
Aulacosternum sp.
The adults are similar in size, shape and colour to the cotton stainer bugs, except that they lack the black spots or marks on the wings. The bugs suck the plant juices from both the foliage and the fruiting parts, particularly the squares.
Numbers of this pest have so far been very low.
Looper Caterpillar
Plusia argentifera Guen.
The looper caterpillar has only been recorded occasionally on cotton, causing slight foliage damage.
The larvae are generally green, usually with two light-coloured lines along the dorsal side. They are up to 1£ in. long when mature and move with a definite looping motion.
The moth is dark-grey or brownish grey with a wing span of l i in. to l i in. The forewings are brown but patterned with irregular silvery-white and dark brown lines and areas; each wing is marked with two conspicuous irregular shaped silvery white areas near the centre. The hind wings are brown or grey, becoming darker towards the rear margins.
Others
Further insect pests which have been recorded attacking cotton in the Ord River Area include the harlequin bug, Tec- tocoris diophthalmus (Thun); cotton 124
Journal of Agriculture Vol 5 No 2 1964
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Journal of Agriculture Vol 5 No 2 1964
whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.); Cotton Stainer, Philia sp.; grasshoppers, including Valanga irregularis (Walk.) and a tetti- goniid; a pentatomid bug, Oncocoris coelebs (Fabr.); hibiscus mealy bug, Phenacoccus hirsutus (Green); and un- identified Lygus bugs, thrips, ants, termites, and wireworms.
INSECTICIDE TRIALS
A number of experiments, some results of which are given below, have been carried out at Kimberley Research Station during the past 3£ years, to test the effectiveness of various types, rates and frequencies of insecticides and adjuvants in the control of the cotton insect pests.
1959-60 Wet Season
Eight different treatments were tested, as follows:—
(1) Sevin: 1 lb. per acre, weekly.
(2) D.D.T.: 1 lb. per acre, weekly.
(3) Endrin: J lb. per acre, weekly.
*(4) Endrin + DJD.T.: (i + 1) lb. per acre, weekly.
(5) Endrin + DX>.T.: (i + i) lb. per acre, weekly.
(6) Endrin + D.D.T.: (i + 1) lb. per acre, fortnightly.
<7) Gusathion: J lb. per acre, weekly.
(8) Control: —, —
* Previously used standard lnsectlcldal control measure on the Station.
All treatments were applied as sprays, at 50 gals, per acre and a total of 13 sprayings were made over a period of 14 weeks.
Although infestations of other pests such as Anomis, Barias. Prodenia and Pectinophora occurred, the damage caused by these larvae was insignificant in comparison with Heliothis.
This pest attacked the cotton throughout most of the season but particularly during March when severe damage to bolls, flowers and squares was caused in the control and certain other plots.
Results, both in terms of seed cotton yield and percentage of Heliothis—injured bolls, showed that Endrin + D.D.T. at (J + 1) lb.
per acre, weekly, provided best and almost com- plete control. Weekly applications of D.D.T. at 1 lb. per acre, Endrin + D.D.T. at (i + J) lb.
per acre and Sevin 1 lb. per acre, resulted in progressively less, but still satisfactory, control of Heliothis, Endrin + DJD.T. <i + 1) lb. per acre, fortnightly and Endrin i lb. per acre, weekly only provided fair control whereas Gusathion at i lb. per acre, weekly, was ineffec- tive against this pest.
1960-61 Wet Season
Eight treatments were compared in this trial which resolved itself into one of testing various rates, frequencies and combinations of materials, such as DJD.T., Endrin, Sevin and Gusathion against pink bollworm and rough bollworm, con- siderable infestations of which occurred during the season. A number of other pests, including Heliothis and Prodenia and various minor pests, however, were also recorded attacking the crop and the effects of the materials on these were determined.
Results showed that, on the basis of weekly counts of pink boll worm-infested bolls, the weekly applications of Sevin at 1 lb. per acre, and Gusathion + DJD.T. at (i + 1) lb. per acre, provided best, although not complete, control and higher rates of these materials are indicated as being necessary for complete control.
Outstanding control, however, was achieved by the treatment involving weekly applications of Endrin + DJD.T. at (1 + 2) lb. per acre, which although uneconomical, was included in an attempt to provide absolute control for com- parison purposes. This treatment produced a yield of 2,600 lb. per acre seed cotton and com- pletely protected the bolls from damage by pink bollworm. D.D.T. at 1 lb. per acre, only gave fair control and rates of 1J to 2 lb. per acre of this material appear necessary for effective pink bollworm control.
The untreated plots yielded only 612 lb. per acre seed cotton. On the basis of rough boll- worm-infested bolls, the Endrin + DJD.T. at
(1 -I- 2) lb. per acre was again outstanding, giv- ing virtually complete control. Then followed Sevin at lib. per acre weekly and Gusathion + D.D.T. (J + 1) lb. per acre weekly. DJD.T.
at 1 lb. per acre weekly was unsatisfactory against this pest; however this treatment pro- vided excellent protection against Heliothis, resulting in nil-infested bolls. Sevin at 1 lb.
per acre weekly was less effective but still satis- factory. However, rates of 1J to 2 lb. per acre are indicated as being necessary to give com- plete control of Heliothis.
1961-62 Wet Season
Due to the severity of pink bollworm infesta- tion in the previous season and the inability of previously-tested rates of certain insecticides to provide effective control, it was decided to in- crease the rates in this trial, a similar severe infestation of pink bollworm being anticipated.
Thus the treatments included D.D.T. at 2 and 3 lb. per acre, Sevin at 1, 2 and 3 lb. per acre, Gusathion + D.D.T. at (i + 1) lb. per acre, and Malathion 4- D.D.T. at (1 + 1) lb. per acre.
However, the infestation of pink bollworm re- mained at a very low level throughout the trial, and an evaluation of the treatments against this pest was not possible.
Although several other cotton pests, particu- larly rough bollworm, were active at various times throughout the duration of the trial, by far the most damage was caused by Prodenia larvae. During the first and second weeks of 127
February in particular, a severe infestation of Prodenia occurred in all plots. Heavy rain dur- ing this period disrupted spraying operations and possibly caused some insecticide deposits to be washed off the foliage. In particular, the Sevin which was applied as a wettable powder preparation could have been affected in this manner.
None of the materials tested provided effective control of Prodenia, with the result that all yields were considerably reduced. Even so, the mcst effective treatments were Sevin at 3 lb.
per acre and Sevin at 2 lb. per acre, the higher rate giving the better control. Severe damage by Prodenia was also caused to cotton crops in various other experiments on the Research Station and similar difficulty was experienced in attaining effective control.
PRODENIA TRIALS
As Prodenia had become such a serious pest, not only of cotton but also of other important crops such as linseed and saffiower and was proving so difficult to control, a number of trials involving the testing of a large range of insecticides and other materials were carried out at Kim- berley Research Station during the 1962 dry season and 1962-63 wet season and are still proceeding.
Tests at the Station during 1962 showed the superiority of two materials—Dipterex and Zectran—in control of Prodenia and Dipterex has since been used with con- siderable success, at 2 to 24 lb. per acre, in spraying schedules both at the Station and in the commercial areas of saffiower at Kununurra. The reason for foliage damage associated with some of these treatments has not been fully explained, but may have been due to high tem- peratures.
Baiting trials commenced at Kimberley Research Station in the 1962 dry season have also indicated that excellent control of Prodenia larvae moving around on the ground below or near a crop can be achieved by bran-insecticide mixtures.
Further work is now being carried out to determine the most effective attractants, insecticides, economical rates and methods of application.
PILOT FARM SPRAY SCHEDULES On the basis of results obtained in the various trials at Kimberley Research Station, spraying schedules were drawn up
for the protection of cotton in the pilot farm area at Kununurra during the 1961- 62 and 1962-63 wet seasons. Areas of cotton were 30 and 190 acres, respectively. These schedules were required to fulfil the re- quirements not only of economical and effective control of the expected insect pests, but also suitability of the insecti- cides for aerial application.
Aerial application will be necessary in the commercial areas as it is virtually impos- sible to carry out a regular spray pro- gramme with ground equipment during the wet season, due to the boggy ground and time involved. The above requirement thus precluded the use of the insecticide Sevin which, although proven to be a most effective material in the control of most cotton pests, was only available at the time as a wettable powder preparation and considered unsuitable for application through the aerial spray equipment.
During the 1961-62 wet season, the pro- gramme consisted of three, fortnightly applications of D.D.T. at 1 lb. per acre, starting at the beginning of the 5th week from emergence of the cotton, followed by four, weekly applications of D.D.T.
4- Endrin at (i 4- i) lb. per acre, and finally, two fortnightly applications of D.D.T. + Endrin at (£ 4- i) lb. per acre.
As no pink bollworm had been found in the 5 acres of cotton grown in the pilot farm area during the previous wet season, the schedule was not directed towards control of this pest but against other expected pests such as Heliothis, rough bollworm, cotton looper, Prodenia, cotton semi-looper, hairy leaf-eating caterpillar and spur-throated locust.
The sprays were applied by means of a helicopter, fitted with boom equipment, which operated at approximately 25 m.p.h.
Good coverage and penetration of the plants, particularly the under-leaf surfaces were achieved due to the turbulence created by the machine as it passed over the plants.
Excellent insect control was obtained under this spraying regime and the aver- age yield of seed cotton was 2,500 lb. per acre.
During the 1982-63 wet season the spray- ing programme was based upon the find- ings of the previous season and with the 128
Journal of Agriculture Vol 5 No 2 1964
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Journal of Agriculture Vol 5 No 2 1964
exception of Prodenia, excellent control of all cotton pests was achieved.
Unfortunately control of Prodenia was most unsatisfactory, particularly during the latter part of the season when a huge infestation of larvae built up and severe damage was caused.
Although Dipterex had proved superior to DJD.T. 4- Endrin (i 4- i) lb. per acre when used on K.R.S., Dipterex was not- available in sufficient quantities for the commercial crop at Kununurra, and in consequence severe damage could not be prevented.
CONTROL RECOMMENDATIONS Effective and economical control by chemical, cultural and biological means, of insect pests of cotton in the Ord River area has proved to be a difficult task, mainly due to such factors as—
(a) the number and variety of pests, often necessitating the use of dif- ferent types of insecticides in the one spraying programme;
(b) the effect of the wet season climate on the efficient and regu- lar application of insecticides, the retention of residues on the plant and the potency of the chemicals;
(c) the possible resistance of certain pests to certain chemicals; and (d) the abundance of native host
plants for the various pests.
Insecticidal Control
As a result of trials carried out at K.R.S.
and experiences at Kununurra, the follow- ing basic spray programme is suggested for the protection of a normal wet season cotton crop, planted during November- December and harvested March-May:
Three, fortnightly applications of DJ).T.
at 1 lb. per acre, commencing at general squaring of the crop, followed by nine, weekly applications of D.D.T. •-- Endrin at (4 + i ) lb. per acre.
This programme is likely to be affected by:—
(1) Weather conditions which may (a) prevent spraying being carried out on the anticipated date or else necessitate extra sprayings, due
to heavy rain falling immediately after spraying; (b) result in the wet season and hence plant growth being extended.
(2) Agronomic practices such as late nitrogen fertiliser applications and delayed cessation of irrigation, which may also extend the grow- ing period of the crop.
(3) The type and degree of pest in- festation, for example:
• If pink boll worm attack occurs, the rate of D.D.T. will need to be increased to 2 lb. per acre.
• If spur-throated locusts are caus- ing damage during the first four weeks before spraying is due to commence, an extra application of Endrin at 2 to 4 oz. per acre, as a barrier treatment around the crop may be required at this time.
• If Prodenia infestation appears to be building up, Dipterex at 2 to 2± lb. per acre (depending whether the majority of larvae are early or late-instar at the time of spray- ing) should be applied. Depending on the activity of this pest, one to four applications of Dipterex may be required during the season.
Coverage of both upper and lower leaf surfaces and penetration to the lower parts of the plants is essential for effective control of Prodenia. If possible, spraying should not be carried out during the heat of the day, so as to mini- mise the risk of plant damage.
• If aphids or red spider become a problem, the addition of Meta- systox at 4 oz. per acre or Rogor at 1 pint per acre may be required.
It is anticipated that in the future, it may be possible to recommend control measures more directly related to actual pest infestations. Due to the considerable fluctuations in the incidence and degree of pest attack to cotton, it may be found preferable to recommend control measures tailored for the pest situation in a par- ticular area of cotton at a given time, rather than standard over-all control measures as suggested above. This would tend to eliminate unnecessary treatments 131
a n d ensure b e t t e r chemical control due to better timing of applications. But such recommendations would require regular a n d t h o r o u g h inspections of the cotton crops by t r a i n e d and experienced personnel.
Equipment
T h e aerial application of pesticides will be necessary for most crops, particularly during t h e "wet" season, a n d organised t r e a t m e n t s on a contract basis are likely to be t h e most practicable. I n some i n - stances, however, ground applications with boom sprays could be very effective a n d such equipment should be available for use on dry season crops or for special emergencies.
Cultural Control
Before definite recommendations can be m a d e on aspects of cultural control such as t h e desirability or necessity of "closed seasons" or of growing, in rotation with cotton, o t h e r crops not attacked by t h e major cotton pests, or t h e most suitable sowing d a t e s t o minimise insect d a m a g e or t h e sponsoring of second-cycle cotton, further ecological studies need to be carried out.
However, accepted s a n i t a t i o n methods such a s t h e destruction of p l a n t r e m a i n s after picking a n d t h e control of weeds, should be practised in order to minimise t h e carry-over of t h e pests from one susceptible crop to t h e next.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to Mr. C. F. H. Jenkins for advice throughout t h e project a n d to Dr. K. H. L. Key, Mr. I. F . B. Common a n d Mr. T. G. Campbell, for a n u m b e r of pest identifications listed in t h i s article.
REFERENCES
Anon. (1951).—The Queensland Agricul- tural and Pastoral Handbook. Vol. 3.
2nd Ed. 296-316.
Common, I. F. B. (1963).—The I d e n t i t y of the Cotton Looper known as Antar- chaea chionosticta A t h e r t o n (Lepi- doptera : Noctuidae). J. Ent. Soc. Qld.
2 : 6-8.
Jenkins, C. F. H. (1945).—Entomological Problems of the Ord River Irrigation Area. J. Agric. W. Aust. 22 2nd series.
No. 2.
Pearson, E. O. (1958).—The Insect Pests of Cotton in Tropical Africa. Empire Cotton Growing Corporation, London.
Thomson, N. J., and Basinski, J. J. (1962).
—Cotton in t h e Ord Valley of N o r t h e r n Australia. Emp. Cott. Gr. Rev., 39. 8 1 - 92.
Willcocks, F. C , and B a h g a t , S. (1937).—
The Insects and Related Pests of Egypt.
1, p a r t 2 (591). Roy. Agric. S o c , Cairo.
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Journal of Agriculture Vol 5 No 2 1964
