Term Paper for URP 6103: Housing and Resettlement Planning
Rohingya Displacement: Local, Regional and International Perspective Credit - Ekram, Showmitra, Dilshad
Introduction:
This term paper prepared as part of the course titled URP 6103: Housing and Resettlement Planning, tries to evaluate the Rohingya refugee issue currently facing Bangladesh from a historical, regional and international perspective. With this objective, the paper starts with a brief history of the Rohingya population and the persecution being carried out on them since the 1960s. An account of the amount of Rohingya population that has been forced to enter Bangladesh and the subsequent response of Bangladesh government and its people towards this crisis is also provided. The paper, then draws on some of the previous cases of refugee resettlement around the world during various time frames to point out the driving forces behind these resettlement, the way in which the host communities handled the issue then, followed by finally identifying some push and pull factors that result in refugee resettlement.
Drawing from those experiences, the paper summarizes the push and pull factors that are in play in case of the Rohingya issue and finally attempts to discuss the fate of the Rohingya Refugee Crisis of Bangladesh in the not very distant future.
History of Rohingya People:
Myanmar is a multi-national, multi-cultural and multi-religious country collectively owned by various people and ethnic races (Tahir Ba Tha, 2007). The vast majority of Rohingyas live in the Rakhine State (Figure-1), a geographically isolated area in western Myanmar, consisting of coastal plains; a network of streams and rivers; and a mountain range separating it from central Myanmar (Amnesty International, 2004). Before 10th century, Arakan was inhabited by Hindus (Tahir Ba Tha, 2007) and Arakan was ruled by the Chandra dynasty (900–1050 CE). Arakan was the way of naval trade and culture for Myanmar with the outside world since the Indian Empire. Through Bay of Bengal Arab merchants came to the interaction with Arakan people since the third century. Starting in the 8th century, Arab merchants began conducting missionary activities, and many locals converted to Islam. Many of the Arabs married local women and settled in towns and villages permanently (Yunus, 1994).The Rakhine tribes of the Burmese began migrating to Arakan and established numerous cities in the valley of the Lemro River in 9th-15th century. But the Arakan with both Muslim and Buddhist population had always maintained an independent status although before the establishment of Mrauk-U dynasty by Solaiman Shah (Narameikhla) in 1430, there was from time to time Burman and Mon interference (Yunus, 1994). For hundred years from 1430 to 1530 Arakan had extremely cordial relationship with Bengal to the extent of calling it by historians as feudatory to Bengal (Yunus, 1994). During British period Bengal Presidency was extended to Arakan and East India Company forced Bengali inhabitants migrate to fertile valleys of Arakan as farm laborers. In time of World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) attacked British- controlled Burma. In 1940s, a nationalist movement was organized by Rohingya Muslims to merge the region into East Pakistan. According to the International Crisis Group (ICG), these immigrants were actually the Rohingyas who were displaced by the World War II and began to return to Arakan after the independence of Burma but were rendered as illegal immigrants, while many were not allowed to return.
From the time of 1962 Burma's military took control of the country and Rohingya people have been deprived of their political rights. Since the 1990s, a new Rohingya movement which is separate from the 1950s armed rebellion has emerged. The history of Myanmar (1885-2015) is shown in Table-1.
Table-1: History of Myanmar (1885-2015)
8th Century The Rohingya, a people of South Asian origin, dwelled in an independent kingdom in Arakan, now known as Rakhine state in modern-day Myanmar
9th to 14th Century
The Rohingya came into contact with Islam through Arab traders. Close ties were forged between Arakan and Bengal.
1784 The Burman King Bodawpaya conquered Arakan
1885 Burma becomes a British colony as a part of India; end of monarchy rule in Myanmar as king and family are exiled to India
1937 British separate Burma from India, making it it’s own colony 1942-1945 Japanese occupy Burma during WWII, is later liberated by British
1948 Burma becomes an independent nation, beginning of civilian government 1961 Buddhism named state religion
1962 Military takeover of government in a coup and institutes socialist policies
1988 People’s Revolution - riots against the government lead to thousands of protesters killed by government, ultimately unsuccessful
1989 Military party declares martial law to crack down on protests, renames country
“Myanmar”
1990 Opposition party wins landslide victory in elections, but military ignores results 2007 “Saffron Revolution” following price increases, monks play prominent role 2008 Cyclone Nargis hits Myanmar, killing 134,000
2010 Military party wins majority of votes in elections, opposition claims widespread fraud
2011 President TheinSein begins democratic, economic reforms
2012 Parliamentary by-elections held, opposition wins a vast majority of seats
2012 David Cameron becomes first major Western leader in 20 years to visit the country, demonstrating a loosening of sanctions and more engagement with the country because of reforms
2013-2014 Flares of violence with various ethnic groups
2015 Draft ceasefire signed between government and 15 rebel groups Elections scheduled for November
Figure-1: Location of Rakhine Region Bangladesh and Rohingya Refugees Issues:
More than 830000 Rohingya refugees are sheltering in Bangladesh, having escaped violence and persecution in Myanmar (reliefweb, 2017 ). The majority of Rohingya people were women and children and they started to live in in Cox’s Bazar and its upazilas. Since 1970s Rohingya people have been forced migrating to Bangladesh. In 1977, more than 200,000 Rohingya fled to Bangladesh due to army abuses. In the 1990s, more than 250,000 Rohingya escaped to refugee camps in Bangladesh due to forced labor, rape and religious persecution in Myanmar. In the early 2000s, all but 20,000 of them were
repatriated to Myanmar. In 2012 Rakhine Buddhists killed more than 100 Rohingya and 10000 of people were driven into Bangladesh. In 2016, more than 25,000 people fled Rakhine to Bangladesh, bringing accounts of killing, rape and arson. Attacks by Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army on border posts prompt a violent response by Myanmar security forces, leading 600,000 Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh as of 20 October 2017 (reliefweb, 2017 ).
Government of Bangladesh formulated a new national strategy for supporting the undocumented Rohingya people who are entering the country from Myanmar. Many Bangladeshis mostly Muslim support government’s decision to shelter the refugees, despite the costs and the risks. Some Bangladeshi people are concerned about the longer-term impact, particularly in the Cox’s Bazaar area. Some Islamist movements are gaining from the crisis, and the potential for Rohingya refugees to be recruited by extremists/jihadists. The Rohingya crisis creates tension between Bangladesh and Myanmar. China is strengthening relations with Myanmar during the crisis.
The History of Refugee Resettlement and their Outcomes
Refugee resettlement is not a new issue for the world. People have been migrating from their homelands owing to various reasons including war, development etc. for a long time now. This section of the paper tries to examine a few of such cases of refugee resettlement to understand the driving forces behind these resettlement, the way in which the host communities handled the issue then and finally identify some push and pull factors that result in refugee resettlement. The section ends with a discussion about the push and pull factors that were most influential in the displacement of Rohingyas from Myanmar.
Table 2: Case Studies of Refugee Resettlement around the World Resettlement
From-To Process Outcome
South Sudan to Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan (Gebrekidan, 2017)
1. Civil War from 1983-2005 over discovery of oil in the region in the 1980s.
2. Political rivalry leading to conflict between Ethnic groups Dinka (majority) and Nuer (minority) from 2013 till date.
3. Combined with famine resulting from drought due to climate change over the past 30 years.
4. Internally displaced persons (IDP):
1.9 M; To other countries: 2 M.
(2013-2017). Majority are women and children. Humanitarian aid, Health care and Education difficult to reach.
1. Uganda: Alone hosts more than 1 M South Sudanese refugees as of August 2017. Refugee Act 2006 allows small plot of land, work permit, mobility, free health-care service and primary education. Problem: Lack of funding.
2. Ethiopia: Plans to expand policy.
Building an industrial park reserving 30% jobs for refugees.
3. Kenya: New approach to deal with it:
establish a settlement in Turkana County as part of Kalobeyei Integrated Social and Economic Development Program aided by UNHCR and WB. Help reduce reliance on humanitarian aid in the long run.
Syria to Europe, Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq and Egypt
1. Conflict among Bashar al-Assaad, Anti-government organizations and ISIS.
2. Originating from the opposition to quasi-dictatorship of Assaad and ISIS taking the opportunity.
3. Almost 5 M Syrians living as refugees in neighboring countries and thousands other IDP.
4. Only 39% of the funds required by the host countries for refugee programs has been received as of October 2017 (Grandi, 2017).
1. Many refugees are returning back to some parts of Syria following ceasefires but the conditions there aren’t favorable yet for their return (Grandi, 2017).
2. In Jordan, refugees have formal right to work, but it is expensive and bureaucratically complex (Betts, 2015).
3. Integration of refugees into the local economy has faced difficulties.
Resettlement
From-To Process Outcome
5. A pull factor is at work particularly in case of migrating to Europe as many of the relatives of the refugees already live there from before (The Daily Conversation, 2015).
Bihari refugees stranded in Bangladesh after Liberation
1. Communal riots between India and Pakistan in 1947 forced about 1 M people from Bihar, Assam, Orissa etc. states of India to migrate to the then East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) (BBC News Urdu, 2016) (AIUB, 2016).
2. After the war of Liberation in 1971, these people, known as ‘Biharis,’
‘Stranded Pakistanis’ etc. voted for repatriation to Pakistan, but the Pak government has been procrastinating the process ever since.
3. They are mainly misunderstood because of their language (Urdu).
4. Now, nearly 4 lakh stranded Biharis live in Bangladesh. Geneva Camp, Dhaka houses 45,000 people (BBC News Urdu, 2016).
1. Most of old generation still want repatriation, while the newer generation want assimilation (AIUB, 2016)
2. Up to 1974, Pakistan took back about 1.5 lakh Biharis from Bangladesh which then stopped and the remaining people became stranded (BBC News Urdu, 2016).
3. Bangladesh government has issued many of them with voter id cards as part of their legalization process.
4. Camp refugee status makes it difficult for them to obtain visa, passport or other citizen facilities.
5. They are good at handicrafts (Karchupi, Benarasi saree etc.), food industry (biriyani, kebab etc.), hair dressing and other technical works (garments, mobile phone repairing, automobile workshops etc.) (AIUB, 2016).
6. Islamic Relief Bangladesh with the aid of their counterparts in USA has helped them expand livelihood options (loans for handicraft business), improve WASH (setting up tube wells and sanitary latrines), living conditions (house renovations for 100 marginalized, women headed housegolds) etc., through its Stranded Community Action Project (Islamic Relief Bangladesh, 2016).
7. Despite all attempts, assimilation process is facing much difficulties till date due to cultural differences, lack of sufficient government initiatives, hostile mindset of a section of Bengali population who think them as Pakistani collaborators etc.
Push and Pull Factors for Refugee Migration:
Push Factors:
1. Inter and Intra Nation Conflict
2. Availability of Natural Resources (Land Grabbing) 3. Safety and Security issue
4. Poverty and Malnutrition
5. Climate Change (natural disaster)
Pull Factor:
1. Religion
2. Kinship (family and relatives)
3. Better opportunities for Assimilation (job, food, security, infrastructure, health etc.) Push Factors for Rohingya Migration:
1. Inter and Intra Nation Conflict:
Myanmar has a history of serious conflicts between Buddhist and Muslim communities since independence from British colonial rule in 1948. Inter and Intra Nation Conflict resulted displacement of Rohingya people from Rakhin state.
2. Availability of Natural Resources (Land Grabbing):
Rakhine State has abundant supply of natural resources (mainly coal) and favorable topography. The government formulated a partnership with China for developing the state as economic zone. For developing economic zone government need to acquire the lands. Land Grabbing is one of the push factors of forced displacement of the people in this state.
3. Safety and Security issue:
Since 1970s Rohingya people have been forced migrating to different country due to forced labor, rape and religious persecution in Myanmar by army. So lack of security of Rohingya people is a major push factor of displacement.
Pull Factors for Rohingya Migration:
1. Religion:
Religion works as one of the major pull fact of Rohingya displacement. It is also difficult to say whether to sole cause of migration in this case is either religious or political. Because, the Rohingya community is a Muslim majority one which is again a minority group in Myanmar, a country where Buddhism is the most widely practiced religion. Again, most of the migrant Rohingya population preferred a Muslim majority country (e.g: Bangladesh, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia etc.) as their potential shelter (Figure-2).
(Source: Map prepared by Author using Al Jazeera and agencies data, 19 September, 2017) Figure-2: Migrated Rohingya Population in Different Asian Countries
2. Kinship (family and relatives):
Rohingya people came to Bangladesh from Myanmar during different times due to conflict. Family and relatives act as a pull factors for recent migration of Rohingya people.
3. Better opportunities for Assimilation (job, food, security, infrastructure, health etc.):
In Bangladesh displaced Rohingya people get better job, food, security, infrastructure, health etc. than Myanmar. Better opportunities for Assimilation should be one of the pull factors of migration of Rohingya people in Bangladesh.
The Fate of the Rohingyas:
The diversity of processes and outcomes of the case studies discussed above is sufficient to deduce that it is extremely difficult to accurately predict the future of the Rohingya issue in Bangladesh. Although negotiations between the two concerned nations are underway to arrive at a suitable process of repatriation of the Rohingyas to Myanmar, it is still unclear as to how much time this complex diplomatic process will actually take, thus putting the fate of about 655,500 Rohingya population in the balance.
Nevertheless, the Bangladesh government has been immensely praised by the international community for its generosity towards the Rohingyas till date. It has been providing with shelter, relief and medical aid to the refugees since a long time now. However, this generosity has also seen a major decrease in greenery and pressure on resources to provide for their accommodation and food coupled with increased crime rate and drug dealing by a section of the Rohingya population in the coastal belt of Bangladesh, where they are currently allowed to reside. Besides, the intermittent influx of Rohingya population across the Myanmar-Bangladesh border and the inability of Bangladesh government to effectively terminate this influx or at least cut out a suitable solution for the problem in cooperation with its Myanmar counterpart is an indicator of a rather weak foreign policy of Bangladesh. In short, the way that Bangladesh has handled the Rohingya issue till date can, at best, be realized as a win in the fight for humanity but a major loss in the war against regional dominance from a geopolitical perspective, if Bangladesh fails to persuade Myanmar to take back all the refugees and that too, quickly. Because, as seen in the stranded Bihari case, it is tough to settle a long contested refugee issue, especially when two concerned countries are not in good terms with each other. It is also equally important to ensure that the refugees go back to a safer place and those who choose to stay, be provided with adequate opportunities to start their lives over and assimilate easily with the host community. Drawing from the experience of migration from South Sudan to Ethiopia, the mass Rohingya population can be engaged in productive work in the agricultural and industrial sector of Bangladesh. They can also be provided incentive to start their own business which will flourish their potential and expertise in a sector they are good at. The same thing has happened in the case of stranded Bihari in Bangladesh. To summarize, Bangladesh needs to act fast and prudently in tackling the Rohingya repatriation issue and closely oversee the assimilation process for those who opt to stay back.
References
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