A “Skripsi”
Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers Training
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of S.Pd. (Bachelor of Arts) in English Language Education
By:
AHMAD SYARIF 107014000306
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND ENGLISH TEACHERS’ TRAINING
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH
JAKARTA
i
Advisor: Drs. Nasrun Mahmud, M.Pd.
The aim of this study is to know the students’ errors in using adjective
clauses at the second year students of MAN Cijeruk and to discuss them in this ‘skripsi’. The method of this reseach was Error Analysis. Meanwhile, the sample were by using random sampling technique. The total sample was 31 students. The
data were collected through test and interview. The data were collected and were
analyzed by using Statistical Analysis and Descriptive Analysis. Statistical Analysis used to find out the students’ outcome percentage while the Descriptive Analysis was to explain and describe the students achievements based on the calculation through
tabulation in the tables. The findings of this research are as follows, the mastery of
second year students (class XI-IPA 2) in grammar especially in using adjective
clauses was low. The average of the form test type is 52.26% and the average of the
function test type is 44.52%. In addition, most of the students made error on ‘whom’
with the average of error is 82.80%. On the other hand, the lowest one is on ‘who’
with the average of error is 30.11%. Therefore, the average score of students in class
XI-IPA is 50.94. Based on the findings above, it can be concluded that the student
should increase and alter their motivation, learning styles, and interest and the
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Pembimbing: Drs. Nasrun Mahmud, M.Pd.
iii
helps, abundant mercies, and guidance so that he could complete this “skripsi.” We
also bear witness that Muhammad is His messenger. May peace and blessing be upon
him, his families, his companions, and to all his followers.
In doing this “skripsi”, the writer is absolutely conscious that in working it
was helped by some people either in materiality or in spirituality.
The writer also would like to express his greatest honor to his beloved
parents. H. Utir Sutirja, his father. Hj. Siti Su’aibah, his mother; who have given him
the things either materiality or spirituality so that he could finish his study. He
would like to express the whole family who have given him the motivation and suggestion to finish this “skripsi.”
The writer does not forget to express his appreciation and gratitude to his
advisor, Drs. Nasrun Mahmud, M.Pd. for his great motivation, advice, and sincerity
in guiding his to carry out this work from the beginning to the ending.
The writer also whishes to express acknowledgement and deep gratitude to:
1. Drs. Syauki, M.Pd. the Head of English Department.
2. Neneng Sunengsih, S.Pd. the Secretary of English Department.
3. All lecturers of English Department who have educated and taught him well
during his study in Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Jakarta.
4. Prof. Dr. Nurlena Rifai, M.A. the Dean of the Faculty of Tarbiya and Teachers’ Training, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Jakarta. 5. All his friends and all the students who have given inspiration to finish this
“skripsi.”
Finally, may this “skripsi” be useful to the reader generally, and for the writer particularly although this “skripsi” is far from being perfect. He receives the constructive critics and suggestion from everyone who read this “skripsi.” May Allah
bless our wishes. Amin ya Allah ya Rabbal Alamin.
Ciputat, 22 November 2011
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ABSTRACT ... i
ABSTRAK . ... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT... ... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... iv
LIST OF TABLES. ... vi
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study. ... 1
B. Limitation of the Study... 4
C. Formulation of the Study ... 5
D. Use of the Study ... 5
E. Method of the Study ... 5
F. Organization of Writing ... 5
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK A.Errors 1. The Definition of Error ... 7
2. The Sources of Error ... 8
3. The Types of Error . ... 10
4. How to Correct Error . ... 13
B.Adjective Clauses 1. The Definition of Adjective Clauses ... 13
2. The Types of Adjective Clauses ... 15
3. The Difficulties in Learning Adjective Clauses ... 19
4. The Usage of Adjective Clauses ... 21
C.The Factors of Difficulties 1. Internal Factor . ... 31
v
B. Population and Sample... 36
C. Techniques of Data collecting ... 36
D. Techniques of data Analysis ... 38
CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
A. Findings . ... 40
B. Discussions ... 46
CHAPTER IV : CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusions ... 48
B. Suggestions ... 49
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Table 3.1 Relative Pronouns and the number of each items
Table 3.2 The Number of Adjective Clauses Function
Table 3.3 The Number of Adjectie Clauses Form
Table 4.1 The Average of the Frequency of Error in Adjective Clauses Function
Table 4.2 The Frequency of Error in adjective Clauses Form
Table 4.3 The Average of Students’ Score
vii
“Don’t feel well be hold by earth
so that you get trouble, but
let the earth in your hand self that you can make
1
A. Background of the Study
In this modern era, the technology and science make the central of life.
Both can do something easily. How to use and develop the technology and science
definitely needs good human resource quality that is supported by mastering an
international language, namely English.
The role of English gives the ease to understand many information in this
world. Without mastering English, people will get the problems understanding it
both written and spoken. First, by mastering written English, they will be able to
read many information that is in the books, magazines, newspapers, novels, etc.
Second, by having speaking skill, they can express their idea, thought, or feeling.
Therefore, the Indonesian government has decided that English should be taught
at school in order to create the best generations who can develop the science and
technology.
Indonesian government agree with the one of the purposes of Indonesia
law 1945 where it is broken down into the law of Indonesia republic number 20,
2003 about the national education system which stated, “Undang-Undang RI Nomor 20 tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional, dinyatakan bahwa Tujuan Pendidikan Nasional berfungsi mengembangkan kemampuan dan membentuk watak serta peradaban bangsa yang bermartabat dalam rangka mencerdaskan bangsa dan bertujuan untuk berkembangnya potensi peserta didik agar menjadi manusia yang beriman dan bertaqwa kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, berakhlak mulia, sehat berilmu, cakap, kreatif, mandiri, dan menjadi warga Negara yang demokratis serta bertanggung jawab”1 (The national education aim
1
Undang-undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 ”Sistem Pendidikan Nasional,” dari
is increasing the competency and character along with grade nation civilization to
educate the nation and having to develop the students competency in order to be
the faithful and god-fearing human being of God, have noble moral, health,
educated, capable, creative, autonomous, and become the democracy civilization
as well as good responsible).
In addition, the explanation of national education system becomes the aim
of curriculum in Indonesia. Besides, this curriculum contains the competence
standard and based competence that becomes the base when the teachers make a
lesson plan. Based on the curriculum, the teachers know which is the limitation
when they teach in the class.
Learning English in the class includes the language skills which are
divided into two kinds, namely receptive and productive skills. The receptive
skills are listening and reading. Therefore, the productive skills are speaking and
writing. If the language skills are learnt well, the students will have good English.
However, in learning English, the students are taught also the language
competences, one of which is grammar.
Grammar has an essential role in mastering English. It is the study about
how to make words into ideas. As Hans P. Guth said that grammar is the system
by which words combine to convey ideas and information. In addition, the study
of grammar can help a writer make appropriate and mature use of the resources of
the language.2
In learning grammar, a clause is the part that occures frequently in the English book such textbook. “A clause may be defined in the same way as a sentence. It is full predication that contains a subject and a predicate with a finite
verb. There are two kinds of clauses; independent and dependent. The
independent clause is a full predication that may stand alone as a sentence; the
dependent clause has a special introductory word that makes the predication
2
‘depend’ on an independent clause.”3 Therefore, based on functions, it is divided into three dependent clauses. One of them that should be taught by an English
teacher of senior high school is about adjective clauses. Betty Azar said that “it is
a dependent clause that modifies a noun. Likewise, it has two kinds, namely
restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses.” 4 Nevertheless, when the students learn it,
they face the problems which are caused by the lack of knowledge in grammar
especially in adjective clauses. For mastering it, the students need the
comprehension about the relative pronouns that describe a noun or pronoun.
Commonly, the relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, that, and which. In order to clear this difficulties in learning an adjective clause, here the writer
would like to show some common mistakes that students often make when they
use relative pronouns. As Michael Swan gives the examples of typical mistakes
in adjective clause as follows:
- There’s the man who he teaches me the guitar.
- I don’t like people which lose their temper easily.
- I think you should stay faithful to the person whom you are married to.5
These sentences are definitely wrong. The first sentence is wrong because
the clause is added ‘he’ as though it is an adjective clause as object yet its function
as subject that does not use ‘he’ after the relative pronoun ‘who’. The second
sentence is definitely wrong because the student don’t know the function of
relative pronoun which when the antecedent of person is used in this sentence. ‘Who’ is used instead ‘of which’. And the last it is definitely wrong because the students use informal language. The function of relative pronoun as object of
preposition does not put the preposition in the end of the sentence but before
relative pronoun.
The correct sentence:
3
Marcella Frank, Modern English: A Practical Reference Guide, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1992), p. 222.
4
Betty Schrampfer Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1992), p. 238.
5
- There’s the man who teaches me the guitar.
- I don’t like people who lose their temper easily.
- I think you should stay faithful to the person to whom you are married.
The students’ difficulties at school can be various. One of them is the
learning attitude in the class that is different so that there are some students who
can receive the lesson easily and the other can not. Thus, their source difficulties
occur while they are receiving the lesson. As M. Alisuf Sabri said that the students’ difficulty here should be defined as an hardship of students in receiving the lesson at school. Thus these learning difficulties occur while they are
following the lesson.6
Commonly, the factors that cause the difficulty in learning consist of two
kinds. The first is the student internal factor; the conditions that are inside the
students themselves. The second is the student external factor; the conditions that
are outside the student themselves.7
In this case, the writer is interested in analyzing the student’s errors in
using adjective clauses with the paper entitled “An Analysis of Students’ Errors
in Using Adjective Clauses” (A Case Study in the Second Year Students of MAN
4 Cijeruk Bogor). The reason why the writer chooses this title because there are
many students who still get difficulty in learning adjective clauses. By knowing
these difficulties that are analyzed by the writer, it can help English teachers
about how to teach an adjective clause.
B. Limitation of the Study
In order to avoid misunderstanding in interpreting the problem. The writer
limits the problem in this “skripsi” only in the student’s difficulties in learning
6
M. Alisuf Sabri, Psikologi Pendidikan, (Jakarta: CV. Pedoman Jaya Ilmu, 2007), p. 88, (Translated by writer).
7
adjective clauses especially in relative pronouns as subordinate conjugation.
These relative pronouns are: who, whom, whose, that, and which, that should be taught in the second grade of senior high school.
C. Formulation of the Study
Based on the statement above the writer would like to formulate the
problems as follows:
1. What are the errors faced by the students in using adjective clauses?
2. Why do the students face such difficulties in using adjective clauses?
D. Use of the Study
This Paper is intended to find out the errors faced by the second year
students of MAN 4 Cijeruk Bogor, to analyze the reason why the students face the
difficulties in using adjective clause, to enlarge the writer’s knowledge in their
grammar especially in using relative pronoun as subordinate conjugation in
adjective clauses.
The writer expects that this paper will be useful for himself, English
teachers and everybody who pay attention to learn English may take advantages
from this study. In addition, it is also to fulfill one of the requirements of English
Department of Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta.
E. Method of the Study
The method that is used in this study is analysis descriptive method
carried by data that are found through library research as the base of theoretic and
field research. In field research, the writer collects and researches immediately to
the location of research in order to find the data needed in this research. As well,
they are analyzed by quantitative and presentation. The field research is conducted
at MAN Cijeruk Bogor. The writer observes some difficulties and errors found by
F. Organization of the Writing
This paper is systematically divided into five chapters. The following is a
brief description about what each chapter contains.
Chapter I is introduction containing background of the study, limitation of
the study, method of the study and organization of writing.
Chapter II discusses about theoretical framework and consists of three
parts. Part A explains about errors which cover the definition of error, the sources
of error, the types of error and how to improve error. Part B explains about
adjective clauses which cover the definition, the types, the usage, and the
difficulties in learning adjective clauses. Part C explains about the factor of students’ difficulties which cover the internal and external factor.
Chapter III presents reseach methodology. It consists of place and time of
the research, population and sample, techniques of data collecting, and techniques
of data analysis.
Chapter IV presents research finding. It consists of findings and
discussion.
Finally, chapter V presents conclusion and suggestion. It is the analysis to
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Errors
1. The Definition of Error
According to Brown errors are part of the student’s interlingua, that is the
version of the language which a learner has at any one stages of development, and
which is continually reshaped as he or she aims toward full mastery.1
Therefore, Dullay stated that error is the flawed side of learner speech or
writing. Those are part of conversation or composition that deviates from some
selected norm of mature language performance.2
The writer tries to concludes that error is a part of foreign language
learning process that is made by the students caused by their lack of
comprehending in the target language rules.
When the students learn about target language, they make plenty of error. It is natural part of language acquisition process. How to know the students’ errors are needed the error analysis.
According to David Crystal, error analysis in language teaching and
learning is the study of the unacceptable forms produced by someone in learning a
language, especially foreign language.3
Moreover, Sharma stated that error analysis is defined as a process based on analysis of learners’ error with one clear objective; evolving a suitable and effective teaching learning strategy and remedial measure necessary in certain
clearly marked out areas of the foreign language.4
1
Jeremy Harmer, Principle of Language Learning and Teaching, (New York: Prentice Hall Regents). P, 170.
2
Heidi Dullay, et/al., Language Two, (New York: Oxford University Press), p. 139.
3
David Crystal, An encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and Languages, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), p. 125.
4
S. K. Sharma, Error Analysis: Why and How?, English Teaching Forum, (April, 1982), p. 21.
From the explanation above, the writer concludes that the error analysis is
the study of linguistic that gives a way to teachers about how to correct the students’ errors in order to improve the effectiveness of their teaching learning.
2. The Sources of Error
Corder identified three sources of errors: Language Transfer,
Overgeneration or analogy, and Methods or Materials used in the Teaching.5
Besides, Richards and Simpson exposed seven sources of errors:
a. Language Transfer, to which one third of the deviant sentences from second
language learners could be attributed
b. Intralingual interference, where Richards exposes four types and causes for
intralingual errors:
1). Overgeneration. It is associated with redundancy reduction. It covers
instances where the learner creates a deviant structure on the basis of his
experience of other structures in the target language. It may be the result
of learner reducing his linguistic burden.
2). Ignorance of rule restrictions: i.e. applying rules to contexts to which they
do not apply.
3). Sociolinguistic situation: motivation (instrumental or integrative) and
settings for language learning (compound or co-ordinate bilingualism)
may affect second language learning.
4). Modality: modality of exposure to the TL an modality of production.
5). Age: learning capacities vary with age.
6). Successions of approximative systems: since the circumstances of
language learning vary form a person to another, so does the acquisition
of new lexical, phonologica, and syntactic items.
7). Universal hierarchy of difficulty: this factor has received little attention
in the literature of second language acquisition. It is concerned with the
inherent difficulty for man of certain phonological, syntactic, or
5
semantic items or structures. Some forms may be inherently difficult to
learn no matter what the background of the learner.
Therefore, James exposed two main diagnosis-based categories of error:
a. Interlingual
Endorgon stated that Interlingual transfer is a significant source for
languange learners. Besides cased on the dictionary of Languange Teaching and
Applied Linguistic (1992) defines interlingual errors as being the result of
languange transfer, which is caused by the learners first language transfer. Error
analysis does not regard them as the persistence of old habits, but rather as signs
that the learner is internalizing and investigating the system of the new language.
Interlingual errors may occur at different levels such as transfer of phonological,
morphological, grammatical and lexica-semantic elements of the native language
into target language.
b. Intralingual
Intralingual errors result from faulty or partial learning of the target
language rather than language transfer. They may be caused by the influence of
one target language item upon another. For example, learners attempt to use two
tense markers at the same time in one sentence since they have not mastered the language yet. When they say : “He is comes here”, it is because the singularity of the third person requires “is” in present continous, and “-s” at the end of a verb in simple present tense. In short, it occur as a result of learners’ attempt to build up concepts and hypotheses about the target language from their limited experience
with it.6
6
According to James, the area of intralingual as follows:
1). Learning strategy-based errors: false analogy, misanalysis, incomplete rule
application, exploiting redundancy, overlooking cooccurrence restrictions,
hypercorrection (monitor overuse), and overgeneralization or system
simplification
2). Communication strategy-based errors: circumlocution (expressing the concept
indirectly, by allusion rather than by direct reference).
3). Induced errors: they result more than from the classroom situation than from either the student’s incomplete competence in English grammar (intralingual errors) or first language interference (intralingual errors): material induced
errors, teacher-talk induced errors, exercise-based induced errors, errors
induced by pedagogical priorities, and look-up errors.7
3. The Types of Error
Dulay and Burtand Krashen in lengthy consideration of Errors described
three major types of taxonomy, 1. Error Types based on linguistic category, 2.
Surface strategy Taxonomy, 3. Error Types based on comparative Taxonomy.8 In this research, the writer classifies the students’ error based on the surface strategy taxonomy. The surface strategy taxonomy highlight the ways
surface structures are altered. Learner may omit necessary items (omission), or
add unnecessary ones (additions), they may deform items (selection) or disorder
them (disordering).
a. Omission
Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that must
appear in a well-formed utterance. Although any morpheme or word in a sentence
is a potential candidate for omission, some types of morphemes are omitted more
than others.
For example omission of to be: Mary the president of the new company.
7
Carl James, Errors in Language Learning and Use, (New York: Longman, 1998), p. 89.
8
b. Addition
Addition errors are the opposite of omissions. They are characterized by
the presence of an item which must not appear in a well-formed utterance. It
usually occur in the later stages of L2 acquisition, when the learner has already
acquired some target language rules. In fact, addition errors result from the
all-too-faithful use of certain rules.
For example in Syntax: The London.
in morphology: The books is here.
c. Double Marking
Many addition errors are more accurately described as the failure to delete
certain items which are required in some linguistic constructions, but not in
others.
For example in past tense error: She didn’t went/goed. in present tense: He doesn’t eats.
d. Regularization
A rule typically applies to applies to a class of linguistic items, such as the
class of main verbs or the class of nouns. In most languages, however, some
members of a class are exceptions to the rule. For example, the verb eat does not become eated, but ate; the noun sheep is also sheep in the plural, not sheeps.
e. Simple Addition
Errors are the “grab bag” subcategory of additions. If an addition error is not a double marking nor a regularization, it is called a simple addition. Not
particular features characterize simple additions other than those that characterize
all addition errors-the use of an item which should not appear in a well-formed
utterance, Simple addition errors observed in both L1 and L2 child speech.
For example in preposition: in over here.
f. Misformation
Misformation errors are characterized by the use of the wrong form of the
morpheme or structure. While in omission errors the item is not supplied at all, in
misformation errors the learner supplies something, although it is incorrect.
For example: The dog eated the chicken.
In a past tense marker was supplied by the learner; it was just not the right
one. As in the case of additions, misformations are usually not random. Thus far,
three types of misformations have been frequently reported in the literature: 1.
Regularizations, 2. Archi-forms; and 3. Alternating forms.
1. Regularization Errors
Regularization Errors that fall under the misformation category are those
in which a regular marker is used in place of an irregular one, as in runned for ran. For example in the regulalarization errors in the misformation category observed
in Chilld L2 production:
Linguistic Item Misformed Example
Reflexive Pronoun Hisself (himself)
Regular Past Gooses (geese)
2. Archi-form
The selection of one member of a class of forms to represent others in the
class is a common characteristic of all stages of second language acquisition. We
have called the form selected by the learner an archid-form. For example, a
learner may temporary select just one of the English demonstratives this, that, these, and those, to do the work for several of them:
That dog
That dogs
3. Alternating Forms.
As the learner’s vocabulary and grammar grow, the use of archi-forms often gives way to the apparently fairly free alternation of various members of a
class with each other. Thus, we see for demonstratives:
Those dog
This cats
g. Misordering
Misordering are characterized by the incorrect placement of a morpheme
or group of morphemes in an utterance. For example, in the utterance:
He is all the time late. (all the time is misordered)
4. How to Correct Errors
Ellis and Hubbard et al., gave practical advice and provided clear examples of how to identify and analyze learners’ errors. The initial step requires the selection of a corpus of languange followed by the identification of errors. The
errors are then classified. The next step, after giving a grammatical analysis of
each error, demands an explanation of different types of errors.
Moreover, Gass and Selinker identified 6 steps followed in conducting an
error analysis: Collecting data, identifying errors, Classifying errors, Quantifying
errors, Analyzing source of error, and Remediating for errors.9
B. Adjective Clauses
1. The Definition Of Adjective Clauses
To know adjective clause is essential because in the English text book,
magazines, newspaper, and the other frequently use the adjective clauses. There
are many experts who state the definition of adjective clause. As Wren and Martin
said that adjective clause is a group of words which contains a subject and a
predicate of its own, and does the work of an adjective.10 On the other words, it is
9
Heidi Dullay, Language…, pp. 150 -163. 10
also called relative clause. As Evelyn P. Altenberg and Robert M. Vago said that
a relative clause (adjective clause) is a kind of dependent clause; it provides
additional information about a noun phrase in the main clause.11 In addition,
Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum said that a relative clause is a special
kind of subordinate clause whose primary function is as modifier to a noun or
nominal.12
Adjective clauses, like adjectives, are used to describe a noun. As George
E Wishon stated that an adjective clause is a dependent clause used as an
adjective; it modifies a noun or a pronoun. These clauses are introduced by two
different kinds of words which always occur just after the noun that the clause
modifies.13
From the definitions explained by the expert above, the writer can take
summary that adjective clauses are a group of words that function for explaining a
noun or pronoun preceded either describing or giving information whose position
is as a subject, object and possessive.
According to S.H Burton, adjective clauses have their own subject and
predicate, but their function is to qualify a noun, pronoun or noun equivalent in
another clause.14 Similarly, the adjective clause is also called relative clause used
to form one sentence from two separate sentences. The relative pronoun replaces
one of two identical noun phrases and relates the clauses to each other.15 We use
relative pronouns to join two statements that refer to the person or thing.
Commonly, the relative pronouns that refer to person or thing are who, whom, which, that, and whose.
For examples:
- I don’t like people who lose their tempers easily.
11
Evelyn P. Altenberg and Robert M.Vago, English Grammar, (USA: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 121.
12
Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, A Student’s Introduction to English Grammar, (USA: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 183.
13
George E. Wishon and Julia M. Burks, Let’s Write…, p. 165.
14
Burton, Mastering English…, p. 94.
15
- Mexico City, which has a population of over 10 million, is probably the fastest
growing city in the world.16
From definitions above, the writer concludes that adjective clause is a
clause which modifies or describes noun or pronoun as antecedent that uses
relative pronouns or relative adverbs as subordinator conjugation describing
people and thing whose position as subject, object, and possessive.
2. The Types of Adjective Clauses
There are two types of adjective clauses; They are restrictive and non
restrictive clauses. As Homer C. House and Susan Emolyn Harman said that
adjective clauses, when analyzed as to the particular way in which they modify
nouns and pronouns, may be classed as restrictive and nonrestrictive. Thus there
are the distinguish between them as follows:
a. Restrictive Clauses
They have the function to limit or identify. As Robert M. Gorrell and
Chalton Laird said that when modifiers limit closely, especially when they supply
the information that identifies or distinguishes subject or complement, they are
called restrictive.17
Restrictive clauses help identify or define the noun phrases which they
modify.18 For instance, ―the Professor who teaches Chemistry 101 is an excellent
lecturer.” (No commas are used. The adjective clause is necessary to identify
which professor is meant).
Therefore, when the antecedent is limited by the adjective clause to some
of class, the restrictive clauses do not use commas. For example, the children who
wanted to play soccer ran to an open field as soon as we arrived at the park. The
others played a different game. (The lack of commas means that only someof the
16
Michael Swam, Practical English…, p. 525.
17
Robert M. Gorrell and Chalton Laird, Modern English Handbook, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964), (3rd Ed.), p. 477.
18
children wanted to play soccer. The adjective clause is used to identify which
children ran to the open field).19
b. Nonrestrictive Clauses
Nonrestrictive clauses, on the other hand, called additive or appositive relative clauses. It set off by commas in writing and by pauses in speaking.20 It
also called Non-defining relative clauses functioning like noun. As Thomson and
Martinet said that non-defining relative clauses are placed after nouns which are
definite already. They do not therefore define the noun, but merely add something
to it by giving some more information about it. Unlike defining relative clauses,
they are not essential in the sentence and can be omitted without causing
confusion. Also unlike defining relatives, they are separated from their noun by
commas. The pronoun can never be omitted in a non-defining relative clause. The
construction is fairly formal and more common in written than in spoken
English.21
The function of nonrestrictive clauses does not limit or identify. they do
not affect the intention, nor restrict the number of the nouns or pronouns they
modify.22 A nonrestrictive clause contains additional information which is not
required to give the meaning of the sentence. A nonrestrictive clause is set off
from the other clause by commas and a restrictive clause is not. Who, whom, and which can be used in restrictive or nonrestrictive clauses. That can be used only in restrictive clauses. Normally, that is the preferred word to use in a restrictive clause, although which is acceptable.23 According to Michael Swam, non-identifying expressions are often separated from the rest of the sentence by pauses
(or intonation-changes) in speech, and by commas in writing (as in the last two
examples above). In writing, non-identifying relative clauses are always separated
19Betty Scramper Azar, Understanding and…, p. 250. 20
Robert Krohn and the staff of the English language institute. English Sentence..., p. 185.
21
A. J. Thomson and A. V. Martinet, A Practical English Grammar, (Oxford: Oxford University press, 1986), (Fourth Ed.), p. 85.
22Homer C. House and Susan Emolyn Harman, Descriptive English…, p. 363. 23Danny R. Cryssco, English Grammar…,
by commas in this way. Then, one of the way how to determine the different
between restrictive and non-restrictive in writing is by seeing the comma . In
addition, the other ways taken from the explanation that was stated by Marcella
Frank that the non restrictive clauses use of commas when the antecedent is
restricted in itself . The antecedents which are used commas as nonrestrictive
clauses are a proper noun, one of a kind, and the antecedent identified by the
preceding context. Not only three of antecedents that are used commas as non
restrictive but also commas used when the antecedent refers to all of a class. for
more clear, the writer gives the examples as follows:
1) Antecedent as a proper noun, for example:
Professor Wilson, who teaches Chemistry 101, is an excellent lecturer. (Commas are used. The adjective clause is not necessary to identify who
professor Wilson is. We already know who he is: he has a name. The
adjective clause simply gives additional information.)
2) Antecedent is one of a kind, for example:
His aunt, who lives in California, came to visit him recently. (The adjective clause does not single out one aunt from others. He may have only one aunt.)
3) Antecedent identified by the preceding context, for example:
4) Late in the evening they sent out for some coffee. The coffee, which had been boiling for along time, tasted rancid
5) Antecedent refers to all of a class, for example:
The chair, which were in bad condition, were sent out to be repaired and refinished. (All the chairs were in bad condition).24
Based on the explanation above, the writer take summary by using table in
order to be clear where the different between restrictive and non restrictive
clauses.
24
Summary of differences between restrictive and nonrestrictive clause
Restrictive
Non Restrictive
Provides information necessary for
identifying a noun in the main clause
Provides additional information but
information is unnecessary to
determining the identity of a noun
in the main clause
No pauses (no comma) or special
intonation to set off the relative clause
from the main clause.
Commas in writing and special
pauses and intonation in speech set
the relative clauses off from the
main clause.
That is freely used as relative pronoun instead of who (m) and which e.g.: The teacher who/that uses a good shoes is my
friend.
That cannot be used as a relative pronoun instead of who (m) and which, e.g: Ahmad Syarif, that uses good islamic dress, is my teacher.
The correct answer: Ahmad Syarif,
who uses a good islamic dress, is my teacher.
Does not usually modify proper noun,
one of a kind, antecedent identified by
the preceding context, antecedent refers
to all of a class except it modifies some of a class e.g:
- The chairs which were in bad
condition were sent out to be repaired
and refinished. (Some chairs were in
bad condition; the others were not)
It may modify proper noun, one of
a kind, antecedent identified by the
preceding context, antecedent refers
to all of a class as well as common nouns, e.g: Husnul, who wears a
fez, is the teacher.
His aunt, who lives in California, came to visit him
recently.
which had been boiling for
along time, tasted rancid
The chairs, which were in bad condition were sent out to be
repaired and refinished. (All the
chairs were in bad condition).
3. The Difficulties in Learning Adjective Clauses
It is not easy to understand and use clauses especially in adjective clauses
until someone faces the probem in learning it. Stanley J. Cook and Richard W.
Suter gives two kinds of clauses problems. The first is the lack of knowledge
about clauses until students write a fragment. As They said that when a person
does not fully understand the essential facts about clauses, he or she can easily fall
into the habit of writing sentence fragment. Sentence fragments occur whenever
someone uses a dependent clause or part of an independent clause as if it were a
complete sentence. For example, “Because I needed more money.” Here the
writer has used a single adverbial clause as if it constituted a complete sentence.
Fragment like this can be remedied by attacking the dependent clause to an independent clause, so that a truly complete sentence results, such as “Because I needed more money, I took a second job.” A second problem involving clauses
concerns the matter of choosing between the relative pronouns who and whom. The distinction between them can be explained in several ways, but since most
people are looking only for a simple test that will provide the correct pronoun
each time, we suggest that you give them just that-a simple test-and try to avoid reference to “direct object functioned” and other more theoretical approaches, at least initially. The simplest test we know of is to determine whether a subject
noun (or subject pronoun) follows the relative pronoun. If it does, then whom should be used; if not, the correct pronoun is who. For example as follows:
- The person who tutored me charges very little.
In practice, many people find it sufficient just to see what kind of word
follows the relative pronoun. If a noun or pronoun immediately follows the
relative pronoun, they use whom, if a verb follows the relative pronoun, they use who. This version of the test is extremely simple and will almost provide the correct answer.25
In addition, Michael Swan gives the examples of typical mistakes in
adjective clause as follows:
- There’s the man who he teaches me the guitar. - I don’t like people which lose their temper easily.
- I think you should stay faithful to the person whom you are married to.
These sentences are definitely wrong. The first sentence is clearly wrong
because the clause is added he as though it is adjective clause as object yet it’s
function as subject that does not use he after the relative pronoun who. The second sentence is definitely wrong because the student don’t know the function of relative pronoun which when the antecedent of person is used in this sentence.
Who is used instead of which. And the last it is definitely wrong because the students use informal language. The function of relative pronoun as object of
preposition does not put the preposition in the end of the sentence but before
relative pronoun.
The correct sentences:
- There’s the man who teaches me the guitar. - I don’t like people who lose their temper easily.
- I think you should stay faithful to the person to whom you are married.26 Based on the explanation above, there are some difficulties in learning
clauses especially about adjective clauses. The first is the meaning and the usage
of relative pronoun in formal language when it refers to antecedent. The second is
the form of adjective clause correctly when its function as subject, object, or
25
Stanley J. Cook and Richard W. Suter, A Study of…, pp.234 –235.
26
object of preposition. The last is the lack of knowledge in clauses until someone
makes fragment.
In addition, to avoid the mistakes, it is needed the comprehension about
the usage of adjective clauses clearly. The next point of this paper is the usages of
adjective clauses especially in using relative pronoun which are broken down into
two parts, namely restrictive/defining and nonrestrictive/non-defining clauses.
4. The Usage of Adjective Clauses
In this point, the writer gives the usage of adjective clauses that is based
on the kind of its own. In order to more understand, each of relative pronouns are
explained below based on the points.
a. Relative Pronouns used in defining relative clauses
The forms are as follows:
Antecedent subject Object of verb/prep. possessive
For person who Whom/who whose
that that
For things which which Whose/of
which
that that
1) Defining relative clauses: persons
a) Subject: ‘who’ or ‘that’
When ‘who’ and ‘that’ are used as subject and refer to person, they are always followed a verb.27 For examples:
- The man who robbed you has been arrested.
- The girl that serves in the shop is my friend.
But ‘that’ is a possible alternative after all, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody and those: For example:
Everyone who/that knew him liked him.
27
Therefore, when the antecedent is preceded by any or all such as any man, anyone, all people, all those, the following clause is always a defining clause. For
example: The boy who broke the window is called Tom.28
b) Object of a verb ‘whom’ or ‘who’ or ‘that’
When whom and that are used as object of a verb and refer to person, they are always followed a noun or pronoun.29 The object form is whom , but this
is considered very formal. In spoken English, we normally use who or that ( that
being more usual than who), and it is still more common to omit the object
pronoun altogether:
- The man whom I saw told me to come back today or
- The man who I saw…..or The man that I saw …….or
- The man I saw…..(relative pronoun omitted)
c) With a preposition: ‘whom’ or ‘that’
When ‘whom’ or ‘that’ is used as object of preposition and refer to person, it is always followed a noun or pronoun. In formal English the preposition
is placed before the relative pronoun, which must then be put into the form ‘whom’: The man to whom I spoke
In informal speech, however, it is more usual to move the preposition to
the end of the clause. ‘Whom’ then is often replaced by ‘that’, but it is still more
common to omit the relative altogether
- The man who/whom I spoke to or
- The man that I spoke to or the man I spoke to.
d) Possesive
‘Whose’and ‘of which’have similar functions. We use ‘whose’ to refer to persons and ‘of which’ to animals and inanimate objects. ‘whose’ and ‘of which’
are used to show possession.30
28
A. S. Hornby, Guide to Patterns and Usage in English, (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1975), (2nd Ed.), p. 156.
29
J. B. Alter, Essential English.., p. 76.
30
‘Whose’ is used to show possession and it is always followed by a noun.
For example: People whose rents have been raised can appeal.
2) Defining relative clauses: things
a) Subject
‘Which’ and ‘that’ are used for subject. When ‘which’ and ‘that’ are used as subject and refer to things, they are always followed by a verb. Either ‘which’
or ‘that’. ‘Which’ is the more formal. For examples: This is the picture which/that
caused such a sensation, The stairs which/that lead to the cellar are rather slippery.
b). Object of a verb
‘Which’ or ‘that’ are used for object of a verb. When ‘which’ or ‘that’ are used as object of a verb and refer to things, they are always followed a noun
or pronoun. For example: The car which/that I hired broke down.
‘Which’ is hardly ever used after all, everything, little, much, none, no
and compounds of no, or after superlatives. Instead we use ‘that’, or omit the
relative altogether, if it is the object of a verb: All the apples that fall are eaten by
the pigs. This is the best hotel (that) I know.
c). Object of a preposition
The formal construction is preposition + ‘which’, but it is more usual to
move the preposition to the end of the clause, using ‘which’ or ‘that’ or omitting
the relative altogether. In addition, after relative pronoun is always followed by a
noun or pronoun. For examples:
- The ladder on which I was standing began to slip or - The ladder which/that I was standing on began to slip or - The ladder I was standing on began to slip.
d). Possessive
‘Whose’ is used to show possession and it is always followed by a noun.
to things, and it is sometimes preferred. The word-order is normally ‘noun + of
which’. For examples:
- We had a meeting the purpose of which was completely unclear or - We had a meeting whose purpose was completely unclear.
b. Non-defining relative clauses
Actually, comma is used in non-defining relative clauses. It is the key
word when we want to determine whether the sentence is defining or non-defining
relative clauses. If the sentence uses it, automatically, the sentence is
non-restrictive. However, to give the reason why it is used comma in the sentence is
the crucial question because this make different between them when it is used in
sentence. The usage of comma based on the antecedent. There are four
characteristics of non-restrictive when it uses comma based on the antecedent.
The first, If the antecedent is a proper noun. The second, if the antecedent is one
of a kind. The third, if the antecedent identified by the preceding context.
Finally, if the antecedent refers to all of a class. Moreover, the non-defining
clauses refers to person and things which function as subject, object of a verb,
object of preposition, and possessive. In order to be more clearly, the usage of
non-defining clauses explained by expert as follows:
The forms are as follows:
Antecedent subject Object of verb/prep. possessive
For person who Whom/who whose
For things which which Whose/of
which
that that
1) Non-defining relative clauses: persons
a) Subject: ‘who’
When ‘who’ is used as subject and refer to person, it is always followed by
a verb. Therefore, the usage of relative pronoun ‘that’ is not used when it refers to
person. In non defining clause, commas set the relative clauses off from the main
clause based on the antecedent. For examples:
- Peter, who had been driving all day, suggested stopping at the next town.
Clauses such as these, which come immediately after the subject of the
main verb, are found mainly in written English. In spoken English, we would be
more likely to say: My neighbor is very pessimistic and says there will be no
apples this year.
But clauses placed later in the sentence, clauses coming after the object of
the main verb, are quite common in conversation: I’ve invited Ann, who lives in
the next flat. Clauses following a preposition + noun are also common: I passed the letter to Peter, who was sitting beside me.
b) Object: ‘whom’, ‘who’
When ‘whom’ or ‘who’ are used as object and refer to person, it is always
followed by a noun or pronoun. Therefore, In non defining clause, commas set the
relative clauses off from the main clause based on the antecedent. The pronoun
cannot be omitted. ‘Whom’ is the correct form, though who is sometimes used in
conversation. For example: Peter, whom everyone suspected, turned out to be
innocent.
As noted above, a non-defining clause in this position is unusual in spoken
English. We would be more likely to say: Everyone suspected Peter, but he turned
out to be innocent.
But non-defining clauses coming later in the sentence, i.e. after the object
of the main verb or after a preposition + noun, are common in conversation:
- She wanted Tom, whom she liked, as a partner; but she got Jack, whom she
didn’t like.
- She introduced me to her husband, whom I hadn’t met before.
c) Object of a preposition: ‘whom’
When ‘whom’ is used as subject and refer to person, it is always followed
by a noun or pronoun. Therefore, In non defining clause, commas set the relative
omitted. The preposition is normally placed before ‘whom’. For example: Mr
Jones, for whom I was working, was very generous about overtime payments.
It is however possible to move the preposition to the end of the clause.
This is commonly done in conversation, and ‘who’ then usually takes the place of ‘whom’:
- Mr Jones, who I was working for, was very generous about overtime
payments.
If the clause contains an expression of time or place, this will remain at
the end:
- Peter, with whom I played tennis on Sundays, was fitter than me
Could become
- Peter, who/whom I played tennis with on Sundays, was fitter than me.
d) Possessive: ‘whose’
‘Whose’ is used to show possession and it is always followed by a noun.
Therefore, In non defining clause, commas set the relative clauses off from the
main clause based on the antecedent. For example: Ann, whose children are at
school all day, is trying to get job. In conversation we would probably say: Ann’s
children are at school all day , so she is trying to get job.
1) Non- defining relative clauses: things
a). Subject: ‘which’
When ‘which’ is used as subject and refer to things, it is always followed
by a verb. Therefore, the usage of relative pronoun ‘that’ is not used when it
refers to person. In non defining clause, commas set the relative clauses off from
the main clause based on the antecedent. For example:
- The 8.15 train, which is usually very punctual, was late today.
- In speech we would be more likely to say:
b). Object: ‘which’
When ‘which’ is used as object and refer to person, it is always followed
by a noun or pronoun. Therefore, In non defining clause, commas set the relative
clauses off from the main clause based on the antecedent. ‘That’ is not used here,
and ‘the which’ can never be omitted. For examples: She gave me this jumper ,
which she had knitted herself or She gave me this jumper; she had knitted it herself.
c). Object of a preposition
When ‘which’ is used as object and refer to things, it is always followed by a noun or pronoun. Therefore, In non defining clause, commas set the relative
clauses off from the main clause based on the antecedent. The preposition comes
before ‘which’, or (more informally) at the end of the clause. For example: Ashdown forest, through which we’ll be driving, isn’t a forest any longer or
d).‘which’ with phrasal verbs
When ‘which’ with phrasal verbs used as object and refer to things, it is always followed by a noun or pronoun. Therefore, In non defining clause,
commas set the relative clauses off from the main clause based on the antecedent.
Combinations such as look after, look forward to, put up with should be treated as a unit, i.e. the preposition/adverb should not be separated from the verb:
- This machine, which I have looked after for twenty years, is still working
perfectly.
- Your inefficiency, which we have put up with far too long, is beginning to
annoy our customers.
e). Possessive: ‘whose’ or ‘of which’
‘Whose’ and ‘of whose’ is used to show possession and it is always
followed by a noun. Therefore, In non defining clause, commas set the relative
used both for animals and things. ‘Of which’ is possible for things, but is unusual
except in very formal English.
- His house, whose windows were all broken, was a depressing sight.
- The car, whose handbrake wasn’t very reliable, began to slide backwards.31
Besides the relative pronoun, adjective clauses also have relative adverbs.
The relative adverbs when, where, and why are used like relative pronoun. They also modify the antecedent that refers both person or things. The relative adverbs
where, when, why, and whereby may introduce either restrictive or non-restrictive clauses, the meaning which is to be conveyed being test. Often if the definite
article or some other similar modifier precedes the noun-antecedent, the clause
which follows will be restrictive. For example, The place where I lived, the time when, the means whereby, the reason why. If the antecedent is a proper noun, the clause which follows is likely to be nonrestrictive. For example, Berlin, where we once lived, was almost destroyed.32
o Why is used to refers a reason and it can replace for which. For example:
Give me one good reason why you did that. ‘why’ is used with the noun reason. It may replace for which. For example: The reason why/for which he comes here is....33
o when is used to refers time and it can replace in/on which. For example:
The day when (on which) they arrived.
o Where is used to refers a place and it can replace in/at which. For example:
The hotel where (in/at which) they were staying.
From explanation above, we know the usage of kind adjective clauses
both restrictive and non-restrictive adjective clauses have some differences each
other. As Robert J. Dixon, has given the explanation about relative pronouns
briefly as follows:
The relative pronouns in English are who, whose, which, whom and that. 1. Who is used to refer to persons.
31A. J. Thomson and A.V. Martinet, A Practical…, (4th
Ed.), pp. 81 -88.
32
Homer C. House and Susan Emolyn Harman, Descriptive English…, (2nd Ed.), p. 365.
33
2. Whose is the possessive form of who. It may, however, also refer to animals or things.
3. Which is used to refer to animals or things. It has the same for when used as subject or object of the verb.
4. That may refer to persons, animals, or things. That may also serve without any change of form as both subject or object of the verb (that may not be used as a relative pronoun in so-called non-restrictive clauses. that is, when the person or
thing which is referred to is clearly indicated or defined).34
5. Whom is refers to person or persons. The function of whom as object either object of preposition or object of verb. As Marcella Frank writes summary of
classification of adjective clauses according to the antecedent that the
introductory word refers to.35
Noun Antecedent Meaning
Introductory Word Illustrative Sentences
A person
A thing
(1) Relative Pronoun:
Who (whom or
whose) Or That Which Or that
Subject- He paid the money to the man who (or that) had done the work.
Object of verb- He paid the man whom (or that) he had hired.
Object of Preposition- He paid the man from whom he had borrowed the money.
Possessive adjective –This is the girl whose picture you saw.
Subject- Here is a book which (or that) describes animals.
Object of verb- The chair which (or that) he broke is being repaired.
Object of preposition- She was wearing the coat for which she had
34
Robert J. Dixso, Everyday English,(USA: Gent Publishing Company, Inc), p. 48.
35
paid $2,000.
(2) Relative adverb:
A time when This is the year when the Olympic
Games are held.
A place Where Here is the house where I live.
A reason why Give me one good reason why you
did that.
Moreover, when the usage of relative pronouns can be used as alternatives
and can be omitted, we can see the table below. The forms in square brackets []
are acceptable alternatives, but are not recommended for active teaching; teach
contact clauses by omitting that whenever possible. A that in round brackets () can be omitted; in spoken English is usually.
W. Stannard Allen P writes summary of classification of relatives
pronoun that can be omitted and can be alternatives.36
1. Defining Relative Clause
People Things
Subject Who [that] That [which]
Object (that) (that)
Preposition (that)…preposition (that)…preposition
Possessive (whose) Of which [whose]
2. Non-defining Clause
People Things
Subject ---, who ---, ----, which---,
Object ---, whom ---, ---, which ---,
Preposition --, preposition + whom
--,
[--,who (m)—prep,]
--, preposition + which --,
[--,which—prep,]
Possessive ---, whose ---, [---, whose ---,]
C.The Factor of Difficulties
Muhibin Syah said that the internal factors are divided into two aspects;
physiological aspect and psychological aspect.37
The factors of student’s difficulties were divided into two factors. The
first is internal factor and the second is external factor. According to Abu Ahmadi
36
W. Stannard Allen, Living English Structure, (London: Longman, 1974), (5th Ed.), P. 211.
37Abu Ahmadi dan Widodo Supriyono,…p
and Widodo Supriyono, the intern factor is divided into two kinds, namely
physichological and phhysiological factor. However, the extern factor includes
social and nonsocial factor.
1. Internal Factor
a. Physiological
This factor is most influental for students’ success while they are studying.
There are the factors which cause physically, namely sick, less healthy, and
physical defect. They will be tired easily and difficult to concentrate while
learning. Finally, the physical defect also can be a problem in learning proccess
because their senses such as auditory does not work well.
b. Physichological
When studying, the students need to prepare spiritual in order to receive the
lesson well. If the students do not have it, they will get the problem because they
are not calm while they are following the learning process. These case is caused
by any factors, namely:
1) Intelligence
There are classification or grade IQ of students. Firstly, IQ of students who
are genius, are about up to 140. Secondly, IQ of students who are intelligent, are
about 110-140. Thirdly, IQ of students who are normal, are about 90-110.
Therefore, IQ of students who are mental weak , are about low 90. These students
who often get the problem in learning.
2) Talent
Talent is the basic potential or basic competence which is gotten from
born. Everyone has different talent. For example, someone whose talent in music
or dance will develop the talent easily. However, when students are taught
something that is not their talent, they will get problem and give up easily, bored,
3) Interest
Interest is very important in learning. In case students do not have it, they
will get difficult in learning. The indicator of students who have not interest can
be shown from their ways to follow learning, whether complete or incomplete
their notes, and take attention or not while they are following the lesson.
4) Motivation
Motivation functions to encourage someone in order to study. This can be
successful factor in learning. The higher motivation, the higher success which
they get. On the other hand, the students who do not have it will get the problem
and easily despondent, no attention to learn, and like annoying in their class. The
characteristics of students whose motivation are they always reads books and
never give up.
5) Mental Health
In learning, the students not only need intelligence, but they are also need
good mental until they can easily receive the lesson in learning process. Mental
and learning has effectual composure emotion until it gives good concentration in
receiving the stimulus while they are studying.
6) Special Types of learner
There are three special types of learner, namely visual, motoric, and
auditory. Someone whose is visual type will be easy to learn something if it is
supplied by written text, pictures, graphics, and drafts. Therefore, the auditory
students will be easy to learn something in sound. Finally, the student motoric
type, will be easy to learn something in moval and written.38
2. External factor
38
a. Social Environment
The social environment includes family, student’s school environment,
society and neighbors. The definition of social environment is the environment
outside that has contact directly with students. Family should give attention to
their children so that they don’t get problem in learning. Therefore, student’s
school environment such as their teacher, classmate, and staff administration can
influence the students’ difficulties. Then, the teacher has to has qualified, good
relationship with the students, good diagnosing skill, and suitable method in
teaching learning process. Finally, the neighbour and society inside us can
influence the students. If these social environments do not support them, they will
get difficulties in learning.
b. Nonsocial Environment
There are the factors which include the non-social environment. They
are school building and location, learning instruments, home and the location,
weather, and learning time. These factors above can influence students
difficulties.39
39
34
A. Place and Time of the research
This research began by doing the observation at school and this research
was conducted on October, 13rd, 2011. The writer took his research at MAN 4
Cijeruk, which is located on Jl. Stasiun Cigombong Bogor.
