SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA, INDONESIA
Skripsi
This skripsi has been forwarded to the Faculty of Psychology, as a requirement to obtain a Bachelors degree.
By:
FATIEMA RHODA NIM: 105070002279
FACULTY OF PSYCHOLOGY
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA
1
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA, INDONESIA
This skripsi has been forwarded to the Faculty of Psychology, as a requirement to obtain a Bachelors degree.
By:
FATIEMA RHODA NIM: 105070002279
Under the supervision of,
Supervisor I Supervisor II
Bambang Suryadi, Ph.D S Evangeline I. Suaidy, M.Si, Psi Nip.197005292003121002 NIP. NIP. 150411217
FACULTY OF PSYCHOLOGY
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA
2 This skripsi with the title of “A Relationship Between Adjustment And
Loneliness Amongst International Students At Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta, Indonesia”, have been examined on the 17 February 2010, at the Faculty of Psychology Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic
University Jakarta. This skrips has been excepted as one of the prerequisites
in order to obtain a Bachelor Degree in Psychology.
Jakarta, 17 February 2010
Examining committee
Head of committee, Secretary of committee
Jahja Umar, Ph.D Dra. Fadhilah Suralaga, M.Si
NIP. 130 885 552 NIP. 195612231983032001 Group
Examiner I Examiner II
Jahja Umar, Ph.D Bambang Suryadi, Ph.D
NIP. 130 885 552 NIP. 197005292003121002
Supervisor I Supervisor II
i
(B) February 2010 (C) Fatiema Rhoda
(D) A Relationship Between Adjustment And Loneliness Amongst
International Students At Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Jakarta, Indonesia.
(E) xvi + 82 pages
(F) The higher education at Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University has undergone radical change since the year 2001, with the phenomenal increase in the intake of international students, particularly from Malaysia, Thailand, Somalia, East Timor, South Africa and Singapore. Students from these countries described their experiences in terms of the way they adjust to their environment and their loneliness conditions. In crossing national borders for their education, these students leave the comfort of their homes, family and social networks. Phenomenological analysis revealed the adjustment process and their loneliness condition. The international students find themselves in a relational deficit, if not social isolation, at the time when the need more than usual support. They face language barriers, study environment, or settings, finances, accommodation and day-to-day living problem and they must still negotiate with institutional rules. They often face issues of personal autonomy and recreation of identity in their environment. Often, the cultural and physical environment is very different. International students must establish themselves as foreigners staying for a time as neither inside nor outside.
ii
relationship between Adjustment and Loneliness has been denied. With an alternative hypothesis (H1) that there is a significant negative
relationship between the two variables, Adjustment and Loneliness. This hypothesis had been accepted as the hypothesis of this research. There is a significant negative relationship between Adjustment and Loneliness. The direction of the negative relationship that had been obtained in this research means that the more low the feeling of loneliness then the adjustment process will be high. The higher the feeling of loneliness, the lower the adjustment process. Further research suggestions, to enhance this research, it is better for the next researcher to use more than one research method, make use of extra literature, observation and interview.
iii
In the Name of Allah, Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
Praise be to Allah, the Lord of the worlds who says in His Glorious Book,
“There has come to you from Allah a Light and plain Book, and Peace and
blessings of Allah be upon the noblest of the Prophets and Messengers, our
Prophets Muhammad (SAW).
I praise Allah Subhanahu wa ta’ ala for His favours He bestowed upon me
and the completion of this research study: A Relationship between
Adjustment and Loneliness amongst International students at Syarif
Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta.
Praying unto Allah to accept this work as a sincere service for His sake and
finally I could finish in a healthy state.
The purpose of this study serves as a last requirement in order to obtain a
Bachelor Degree at the Faculty of Psychology.
A special vote of thanks goes to the following people:
1. Jahja Umar, Ph,D, Dean of the Faculty of Psychology who gave me
iv
3. Many credits go to my dearest supervisors Mr Bambang Suryadi, Ph.D
and Miss S. Evangeline Suaidy, M.Si, Psi, who gave me their maximal
attention. Even though through tough and difficult times, they gave me the
best.
Dear supervisors, with patience and more patience you guided me. Thank
you for guiding me, and inspiring me. Showing me the way and for giving
me the best.
4. My greatest thanks to Abi Yunus and Ummi Shereen, the word patience is
what I always remember. Shukran for always reminding me about my duty
as a child and a student.
5. My husband, Inoki Nurza, thanks for all your love, support and patience
you gave me throughout my studies. My child, Kholil, your first one and a
half years after birth you spent with ummi as a student in psychology,
unforgettable my boy. And M Qowwam your smile kept me going my boy.
6. Mr Mubarok, The Ministry of Religious Affairs, Head of The Legal Bureau
and Foreign Affairs, thank you for all your patience, help and advise you
gave us as students in Indonesia.
7. My Family back home, father, Farouk, brother and sister, Achmat and
Shahieda and their families, shukran for all your doa’s and support you
v
throughout my studies until finishing my skripsi. May the blessings of Allah
always be with you.
9. My family in Padang, dear mother-in-law, thank you for all you have done
for me and the love and support you gave me throughout my stay in
Indonesia. You gave me pearls of life, and my father-in-law, thank you for
everything. And finally to the younger one’s thanks for all your prayers.
10. The foreign students of UIN who endlessly and willingly gave me their help
in order to complete this research study.
11. My dearest friend Subgeyah Hendricks, since the day we met in Dirasat
Islamiyah UIN, until this day you still helping me. Thank you my sister for
all you have done for me. Help me push the children to class and back
home. Your reward is with Allah. No words can describe my thanks and
gratitude towards my friend. Believe it not, you taught me confidence,
believe it not.
12. My dearest Tietie Faziela and Uncle Akram, gratitude to you for a lifetime
support. Forgive me and your reward is with Allah for allowing me to finish
my studies. And my cousins, thanks a million for sharing your house with
vi on the face of the earth.
14. Rositoh, my dearest friend thank you for all your help you gave. No words
can describe my gratitude for all the help you ever gave me.
Finally may this piece of work be of benefit to the Faculty of Psychology and
may Allah reward everyone in accordance that made this research possible,
Ameen. The writer realize that this piece of work have many mistakes and
needs to be rectified. With this if there are any critics or suggestions in order
to make this research better, do not hesitate to criticize or give any
suggestions.
Jakarta, December 2010
vii
Abstract ... i
Forward ... iii
Table of content ... vii
Enlisted tables ... x
Enlisted sketches ... xi
Enclosure list... xii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background ... 1
1.2 Research Questions ... 9
1.3 Problem Identification ... 9
1.3.1 Problem Statement ... 10
1.4 Research Purpose and Significance ... 10
1.4.1 Research Purpose ... 10
1.4.2 Research Significance ... 10
1.5 Writing System ... 12
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Adjustment ... 14
viii
2.1.4 Process of adjustment ... 23
2.1.5 Principles of adjustment. ... 27
2.2 Loneliness ... 29
2.2.1 Definition Loneliness ... 29
2.2.2 Conceptualizing loneliness ... 32
2.2.3 Multidimensional concept of loneliness ... 33
2.2.4 Manifestations of loneliness ... 34
2.2.5 Dimensions of loneliness... 37
2.2.6 Aspects of loneliness ... 40
2.3 International Students ... 40
2.4 The correlation between adjustment and loneliness. 42 2.5 Framework ... 44
2.6 Hypotheses ... 46
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHOD 3.1 Research Type ... 48
3.1.1 Research approach ... 48
3.1.2 Research Variable ... 48
3.1.3 Conceptual and Operational Definition ... 49
3.2 Population and Research Sample ... 50
ix
3.4 Technique research instrument ... 57
3.4.1 Measuring of validity ... 57
3.4.2 Measuring of reliability ... 59
3.5 Research Procedure ... 59
CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH RESULTS 4.1 Background ... 62
4.1.1 Overall description of the respondents ... 62
4.1.2 Gender ... 63
4.1.3 AGE ... 65
4.1.4 Country... 67
4.2 Tests of Normality ... 69
4.3 Testing of Hypothesis ... 71
4.4 Regression analysis ... 72
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION, DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusion ... 75
5.2 Discussion ... 75
5.3 Suggestions ... 79
x
List 1 Adjustment scale and loneliness scale.
List 2 Try out data.
List 3 Reliability and validity of adjustment scale.
List 4 Adjustment and Loneliness scale.
List 5 Field test data
List 6 Descriptive, Normality Tests, Regression descriptive Statistics,
x
Table 3.1 The 4-point Likert Scale ... 52
Table 3.2 Blue Print Self-Adapted Adjustment Scale ... 53
Table 3.3 Blue Print Self-Adapted Adjustment Scale ... 54
Table 3.4 Blue Print Self-Adapted Adjustment Scale Used For Field Test ... 55
Table 3.5 Blue Print Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale ... 57
Table 3.6 Blue Print Self-Adapted Adjustment Scale Used For Field Test ... 58
Table 4.1 A General Description Of The Research Subject ... 63
Table 4.2 Gender (Adjustment variable) ... 64
Table 4.3 Gender (Loneliness) ... 64
Table 4.4 Age (Adjustment Variable) ... 65
Table 4.5 Age (Loneliness) ... 66
Table 4.6 Country (Adjustment Variable) ... 67
Table 4.7 Country (Loneliness Variable) ... 68
Table 4.8 Descriptive Statistics ... 68
Table 4.9 Shapiro Wilk Normality ... 69
Table 4.10 Correlation Testing Result ... 71
Table 4.11 Model Summary ... 72
Table 4.12 Anova ... 73
xi
Graphic 2.1.QQ Loneliness Plot ... 70
xii
Table 3.1 The 4-point Likert Scale ... 52
Table 3.2 Blue Print Self-Adapted Adjustment Scale ... 53
Table 3.3 Blue Print Self-Adapted Adjustment Scale ... 54
Table 3.4 Blue Print Self-Adapted Adjustment Scale Used For Field Test ... 55
Table 3.5 Blue Print Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale ... 57
Table 3.6 Blue Print Self-Adapted Adjustment Scale Used For Field Test ... 58
Table 4.1 A General Description Of The Research Subject ... 63
Table 4.2 Gender (Adjustment variable) ... 64
Table 4.3 Gender (Loneliness) ... 64
Table 4.4 Age (Adjustment Variable) ... 65
Table 4.5 Age (Loneliness) ... 66
Table 4.6 Country (Adjustment Variable) ... 67
Table 4.7 Country (Loneliness Variable) ... 68
Table 4.8 Descriptive Statistics ... 68
Table 4.9 Shapiro Wilk Normality ... 69
Table 4.10 Correlation Testing Result ... 71
Table 4.11 Model Summary ... 72
Table 4.12 Anova ... 73
MOTTO
Patience has no limits until the end of time.
“Verily, he who fears Allâh with obedience to Him, and
1
1.1 Background
As technology is improving so the need to seek knowledge at a higher level is
increasing. Education has undergone a radical change. With a phenomenal
increase, the intake of International students is growing on a large scale.
Students have the need for learning. Consequently, the phenomenon is about
having to seek higher education in other countries.
As Indonesia is growing, the educational sector strives to better their
education system. Part of this system is to give scholarships to students from
other countries. Every year the Department of Religious Affairs Republic of
Indonesia spends a great amount on scholarships for International students.
Some students are maintained with a full scholarship and some with a half
scholarship. A full scholarship covers all costs, starting from daily living cost,
until tertiary education. A half scholarship consists only of educational fees.
.
International students are allowed to study at any accredited university across
Indonesia. The international students are allowed to choose any university
Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta is known for the center of
Islamic Studies, in Indonesia, the students who receive a scholarship from the
Department of Religious Affairs Republic Indonesia are advised to study at
the university. Since 2001 until 2010, students are continuing their education
on a higher level at Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta. There
are 166 International students, 98 males and 68 females currently studying at
the university. These students come from all corners of the world such as
Somalia, South Africa, Singapore, Thailand, East Timor and Malaysia.
For many of the students, a first time leaving the comfort of their homes. The
students leave their home environment and relocate to study. They leave
behind family members, loved ones, husbands, wives and close friends. In
crossing national borders for their education, these students leave their family
and social network that often leave students to vulnerability. Relocation,
however, can be a challenging experience. Students experience an
increasing amount of adjustment over time.
The initial stage for students in their adopted country is a very difficult stage.
These students have to meet the demands of their environment and how to
handle situations well but if possible to enhance the quality of their live. In
order to enhance the quality of life, International student’s behavior must go
Their ability to cope successfully with daily problems and demands of their
new environment play an important role in the adjustment process for the
students.
Daily adjustments may concern the satisfaction of biological needs, such as
hunger and thirst, or they may, at the human level, involve the fulfillment of
psychological needs, such as the desire to belong, to receive love and
affection, to gain approval or status, or to find an opportunity for creative
self-expression.
According to Lehner & Kube (1960) man is continually forced to adjust to his
environment, but fail to realize that man also can shape their environment.
Both man and his world are modifiable, whether the world be physical or the
social and psychological world. As our environment changes, we modify our
behavior accordingly. And these modifications, in turn, affect the environment.
From our interactions with other people stem some of the most significant
experiences in our lives. Some of these people elicit our affection and trust,
others arouse in us resentment, anger, jealousy, or rudeness, yet still others
stimulate in us creative achievements that would never found expression in
From the above statement the researcher concludes that, adjustment is a
formal behavior or an action that follow the accepted rules of society. As
international students adopt their new country, these students have to adjust
to the culture and customs of the country. Every student adjusts on a different
level, depending on the condition of the situation. Some students accept the
laws and rules of society. For many other students it is a difficult process to
accept everything society asks of them.
At times to accept the principles and laws of society, international students
have to go against their own laws and principles they have been taught since
childhood. This is a difficult process for most of the international students. For
some students who find themselves in conflict with their environment, it will
mean to surrender, leaving the student in a state of uncertainty and doubt
about himself. The mere fact that international students are forced to adjust to
their environment causes damage to their self-esteem. International students
become emotionally disturbed with their conditions, which in turn lead to self
dissatisfaction.
As in the case of international students, for many it is a first time experience
of leaving the comfort of their homes, not having many details about their new
environment and not knowing what to expect. Many students adjust quite
in their new environment. For these students it becomes difficult to change
who they are as a person. They not only become confused with themselves,
but with their living conditions. In the beginning, before learning the initial
language of the country, students are not able to socialize in a free manner as
they wish to. The language barrier is a big process for the new students.
Students often become shy to socialize, because they do not understand how
to communicate in the local language of the country.
Students are faced with a foreign language, food problems, cultural
differences, finances, accommodation, and day-to-day living problems, and
they must also negotiate to an unfamiliar set of institutional rules. Often the
physical and cultural environment is very difficult, with new social norms and
customs. International students that study in the west have a great difficulty in
the English language, whereas in the east students have to adjust to the
particular country’s language where the student will study. In this case
students who study in Indonesia, have to know the Indonesian language,
which, in the initial stage most students do not understand. As they have no
background of.
Students have to study the language in a short span of time. Most students
have to study the Indonesian language in a time span of 124 hours until 150
my opinion this is a short span of time, which also creates doubt in students.
If we study at a tertiary level, students must be very well competent in the
language that the classes will be held.
So, even the initial stage of university is practically very difficult for many of
the students, because students are forced to understand the language at a
high level. The international students condition often leave students in a
vulnerable state, which at a later stage may result to difficulty, because of not
mastering the local language in a good way.
Language is a social product, a thing of invention and culture. Language is
the basic medium of interaction without which human social life as we
understand it, could not have originated. Language is the principle means
through which humans receive its cultural inheritance. Indeed without
language, culture as we know it would not exist at all. So it comes as no
surprise that language is a particular interest to cross-cultural communication,
Bonner (1953). Language differs enormously from one another and these
differences are related to important differences in the customs and behaviors
of cultures in which these languages reside. Language is a sole carrier of
From the above mentioned statement the researcher derives that cultural
factors affect international students in two distinct ways. Many students find
themselves missing their own culture and linguistic settings, often intensely.
Culture plays an important role in the daily lives of every human being.
Many students give up on their conditions and the fact that they could not
adjust to their current situation. They eventually fail in their duty to complete
their studies in their adopted country. Many students who want to make their
studies and stay a success in their adopted country, adjustment becomes a
huge struggle. Many students stay optimistic about their condition of
loneliness. They try their utmost best to adjust in a good and successful
manner. They arrange, compose, harmonize and come to terms with
themselves and to something else. Students do things according to the laws
which govern their harmony.
Newly arrived international students suddenly find themselves in a very
difficult situation, whereby students become vulnerable to feelings of
loneliness and social isolation. These feelings of loneliness are caused by
language difference, social support, and cultural differences. Most students
go through a rough patch of loneliness for at least the first month of their stay
Many students can adjust to their new situation very well, but for some
students adjusting is a very difficult process. For some students, the
adjustment process may take years, yet still they cannot adjust in a good
manner. International students suffer from a great vulnerability. To maintain
their social bonds, the international students conditions are expected to
contribute to loneliness.
Loneliness is affected not only by the presence or absence of relationships,
but also by the qualitative aspects of social relations. Thus decrease in
satisfaction with the relationships and may affect the current conditions of
students and may lead to loneliness. In fact, majority of the students suffers
from dissatisfaction in their daily functioning with their environment. In the
place where they reside, university, or with friendship, ect, which leave
students to vulnerability.
From the above mentioned explanation the researcher is interested in doing
this research about “A relationship between adjustment and loneliness
amongst international students at Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta Indonesia.
This research was performed amongst the International students that study at
1.2 Research Questions
In this research, the researcher came across a few problems, which are as
follows:
1. How do international students adjust to their new environment?
2. Why do international students experience loneliness?
3. Is there a negative correlation between adjustment and loneliness
amongst international students?
1.3 Problem Identification
In order for the researcher to stay focus on the research problems, the
researcher restricted the problems of the particular article as follows:
1. Adjustment is a question of feeling and behavior, both of which occur in
specific situations. Thus a person might be well adjusted in that he cannot
do what he wants to do in other situations. Behavior is a function of the
environment. The particular behavior that one person shows in a particular
situation is influenced by the learning experiences that the person has had
in similar situations. Different learning experiences produce different
behaviors, Watson & Tharp (1973).
2. Loneliness is an overwhelming, persistent experience. Society pressures
the individual to act in restricted, socially approved ways. This leads to
discrepancy between one’s true inner self and the self portrayed to others.
3. International students are student who leave their home environment and
1.3.1 Problem Statement
Based on the background and restriction of the problem that has been
explained, the researcher formulated a problem as follows: Is there a relationship between adjustment and loneliness amongst international students at Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta
Indonesia?
1.4 Research Purpose and Significance
1.4.1 Research PurposeThe purpose of this research is to identify the relationship between
adjustment and loneliness amongst international students at Syarif
Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta.
1.4.2 Research Significance
This study has both theoretical and practical significance as follows:
a. Theoretical significance
1. To attain a better understanding of the theory, have a brighter insight
of the theory and give the specific information that is needed in this
research.
2. If this research supports the hypothesis that there is a relationship
theoretical understanding that there is a definite significant factor that
even though international students can adjust to their new
environment, these students still go through loneliness.
b. Practical significance:
To give extra social information about adjustment and loneliness, so this
information can be of benefit to those that give scholarships to foreign
students. In order for them to give more attention to these students and
their daily needs. To make them overcome their difficulties they are faced
with on a daily basis.
For the lectures to understand their students and give special attention to
the students needs. To the rector of the university and its staff to assist the
students in a most honorable way, for after-all the students are their
guests. To the international office, focus more on the needs of the
international students, in order for students to focus on their studies and
not be stressed with technical problems.
This information can give a contribution to lecturers and students,
especially to international students that go through vulnerability of
adjustment and loneliness. And also to the host-nationals at university,
and close family and friends this information would be of excellent use in
And also to the international students, how they as students can learn
from their conditions and in this way try to overcome their difficulties. The
effort of this research will raise a serious concern about the condition of
the international and the existence of the international office at the
university.
1.5 Writing System
The researcher uses the American Psychological Association (APA) writing
system style. The writing system that has been used in this thesis is as
follows:
CHAPTER 1 : This chapter consists of an introduction, research questions, problem restriction, and problem formulation, research
purpose and benefit, and the writing system.
CHATER 2 : This chapter gives an explanation of the theory of this
research, a layout of the research framework and a complete
research hypothesis.
CHAPTER 3 : This chapter gives an explanation of the research
methodology, the research approach, the collecting of data,
CHAPTER 4 : This chapter consists of the results that had been obtained in this research. It gives an overall conclusion of the
respondents of the research, testing of the research
instrument, results of the validity, reliability and normality
tests, and a complete research analysis.
14
2.1 Adjustment
2.1.1 Definition of Adjustment
The biological concept of adaptation
Lazarus (1976) said the biological concept of adaptation has been borrowed
and changed somewhat by the psychologist and renamed “adjustment” to
emphasize the individual’sstruggle to get along or survive in his or her social
and physical environments.
Adaptation as process and as an outcome
As cited in Grasha and Kirschenbaum (1980), George Vaillant, Richard
Lazarus, and Harold Fishbein stated that adaptation can be regarded as a
“process” or an “outcome” of our efforts. In both these cases, we make value
judgments about how well we are doing things.
Each of us has some thoughts and feelings about how well we use various
processes to adapt and the things we have achieved. How we evaluate
ourselves affect our thought and actions. Evaluating ourselves very negatively
cope successfully with problems and demands of the environment. The most
important fact about adaptation is that we can loose sight of the fact that most
of us are, to varying degrees, good and bad at different things. For
international students, the first time in their new environment they have to
learn how to come around so they can find a way how to get around by
themselves. Through finding their way by themselves, will make the process
or the outcome of their stay a much easier or difficult tasks.
Grasha and Kirscenbaum (1980) define adjustment asfollows: Adjustment
refers to the things we do to meet the demands of our environment.
Adjustment is concerned with our success and failure matching skills and
abilities to events in our lives. Those things we do to “get by” or“to hold our
heads above water”, to meet basic needs, and otherwise keep ourselves free
of symptoms of problems in living, are typically associated with an adequate
adjustment.
According to Atwater (1983), adjustment consists of the changes in
ourselves and our circumstances necessary to achieve a satisfactory
relationship with others and with our surroundings.
Benjamin B. Wolman also explains in (Atwater, 1983), that adjustment is a
most of one’s needs and meet most of the demands, both physically and
socially, that are put upon one. The variations and changes in behavior that is
necessary to satisfy needs and meet demands so that one can establish a
harmonious relationship with the environment.
According to Watson and Tharp (1973), adjustment is a value judgment about
the relationship between a person’s behavior and his environment. These
relationships are learned. To arrange the parts suitably to themselves and to
something else, and to do this according to the laws which govern this
harmony.
Watson and Tharp (1973), also explains that adjustment is a question of
feelings and behavior, both of which occur in specific situations. Thus a
person might be well adjusted in that he can do in one type of situation, but
badly adjusted in that he cannot do what he wants to do in other situations.
Behavior is a function of the environment. The particular behavior that one
person shows in a particular situation is influenced by the learning
experiences that the person has had in similar situations. Different learning
Bonner (1953), gives a clear explanation on how students should function in
order to adjust to their environment.
As long as students are in interaction with others, they must at every turn
adjust themselves to that particular behavior. The process of socialization is
long and complicated. It begins at birth and ends at death. Social interaction
is the condition of surviving and living in a good-adjusted manner. The
analysis of social interaction invariably leads one to an examination of the
learning process. Learning is a fundamental process of all behavior. Social
learning is the process through which the individual is conditioned to behave
in certain ways. A human individual is human because of his relatedness to
others and to the customs of his group.
The organization of a personality in significant ways is in the organization of a
culture. Cultural factors play an important role in shaping the personality of an
individual. From a broad cultural point of view values and norms are the
established codes, or existing social rules of behavior. Apart from them
personality is the organization of the rules of behavior into a more or less
consistent pattern of responses.
Behavior may be described as normal or abnormal depending upon its
From the standpoint of cultural norms, therefore, maladjustment in one culture
maybe described as adequate adjustment in another. These are the
integrative systems, or systems of orientation, which enable the individual to
organize his attitudes and behavior around a few and relatively stable
systems of ideas and practices.
These systems are found in one form or another, with more or less controlling
power over the individual’s conduct in every society.
In order to survive students has at all times found it necessary to devise
means of maintaining control over himself or herself and their environment
and giving sense of direction. These means have been of three kinds: the
rational systems, the believe system, and the social ideologies.
The rational believe system are all those methods of control which make up
the knowledge, technology of a group, such as tools, instruments, the system
of skills for manipulating these instruments, and its abstract and symbolic
knowledge. The chief function of these systems is to adjust individuals and
groups to the natural environment and to transform non-usable or natural
The belief systems are all the ideas, invariably absolute, which function to
adapt members of a group to those areas of life which cannot be manipulated
by the existing technology or skills namely the realm of the unknown.
The belief system consists of verbal and conceptual systems such as religion,
ect. The social ideologies are the set of ideas or values which express the
power relations members and groups.
The institutional life of every society is based to some degree on these three
integrative systems. No society is dominated by one or the other exclusively,
though one may offer greater individual and collective security than the
others, Bonner (1953).
The researcher concludes that adjustment is an interaction process. Through
this process students learn things about their new environment and how to
socialize in an appropriate way. The beginning of the process is a very
important step, because it will determine the success of the student in a great
way. Through socializing the students become experience and wise how to
operate their condition. For those students who interacts less with their
environment, adjustment is a very difficult process. Many students misadjust
because of culture. The fact that people grow up with different cultures, these
low level, students will face many problems. Another factor is the every
people interpret culture in a different way.
In order for students to maintain control over themselves, it is important to
stay with what you believe in, because what a person belief in, is very
important to stay healthy and focused. As your belief system is the structure
of your personality.
2.1.2 Concept of adjustment
Before we can understand how to adjust to daily interaction and how it
functions, we need to understand why it is important to adjust.
According to Lehner and Kube (1960), the concept of adjustment consists of
three elements. This concept consists of understanding ourselves better.
Understand others in better ways, and also to understand better the world
around us.
In other words, we need to study the concept of adjustment in order to learn
how to get along with other people, how to approach university problems, and
how to recognize and resolve general emotional health problems. As long as
we live we shall encounter problems that will demand some kind of
readiness on our part to adjust to them. We cannot avoid problems, but we
can only learn how to handle them. And we shall be able to handle them only
as we learn more about ourselves.
According to Atwater (1983), adjustment consists of three elements such as
ourselves, others and change. These three elements are interwoven in the
concept of adjustment. One is concern with us. Up to a point, self-interest is a
normal and necessary part of life.
Another common element is the need to get along with others. At university or
our temporary home, life’s biggest problems often turn out to be “people” problems. At the same time, some of life’s greatest satisfactions come from
relationships with our new environment.
A third common element is change. In recent years change has become rapid
and that it is no secret that life in itself is change.
The above statements have a few things in common, such as the self, others,
and changes in environment. Interwoven in this text means that one element
cannot stand by itself. All three elements are interdependent to function in an
adjustable way. Adjustment consists of changes within us and our
circumstances necessary to achieve a satisfactory relationship with others
accomplished either badly or well. This is a practical way of looking at the
matter because it permits us to turn to such questions as how unsatisfactory
adjustment can be prevented and how it can be improved.
2.1.3 Aspects of adjustment.
We think of self-adjustment as meaning harmony among the various parts of
the self and that is considered as harmony among our thoughts, our feelings,
and our actions.
As described by Watson & Tharp (1972), the person who is racked by internal
contradiction, who is indecisive, confused, self-contradictory, is not
considered happy or balanced. In common language, such a person may be
called mentally ill, disturbed, or badly adjusted. Significantly, a synonym for
mental illness is unbalanced. Another aspect of adjustment is the self to the
environment. An individual may be out-of-phase with the world around him.
He may be called out-of-touch, flipped, spaced, gone, way out, these terms
colorfully express our awareness that the maladjusted individual is out-of-tune
with his environment.
According to Watson & Tharp (1972), the idea of adjustment has been used
to mean conformity. Many people believe that the well adjusted individual
opposed to his social environment he must be like others around him. In the
case of international students, it is not all students that find the harmony they
need to feel happy and contented. They are in conflict with their thoughts and
actions because of the mere fact that they have to prove to all that they are
the strong student and nothing is wrong with them. So in this case students
fight with themselves in the sense that they fighting a loosing battle and they
think that they will not be able to overcome the difficult phases they go
through during their stay. Maybe this point brings about conflict within the
students which allows students to go through rough patch of loneliness.
2.1.4 Process of adjustment
The emphasis on adjustment was on changing ourselves to fit into our
surroundings. It implied a great deal of social conformity. The well-adjusted
person is always more of an ideal than a reality. He was highly stable and
more inhibited with his or her desires and feelings than people are now.
Today we sometimes feel it necessary to change our surroundings as a way
of satisfying our needs. Atwater, (1983)
According to Lazarus (1976), adjustment consists of two kinds of processes:
Adjustment as a process: We ask, “How does an individual, or how do people
in general, adjust under different circumstances, and what influences this
1. Fitting oneself into given circumstances and,
2. Changing the circumstances to fit one’s needs.
Psychologist are unwilling to consider psychological health as merely getting
along or fitting into the external environment whatever its characteristics, and
who regard the effective person as one who changes things as well as
himself or herself. “Adjustment” remains a highly serviceable word in
psychology, although its roots lie in biology. In psychology it concerns the
many ways in which an individual manages his or her affairs.
Everything in life we do, there are processes and procedures towards it. In
order for us to adjust in a good manner we must grow in our experiences in
life. Actually, adjustment and growth refer to a complementary life process.
Both involve satisfying our needs as well as the demands of our
surroundings. But the emphasis is different in each. In adjustment, it is the
relationship with our surroundings that is foremost.
In growth, the emphasis falls on the individual. Similarly there is stability and
change in both processes. But the stability is more valued in adjustment,
while change is the key to growth. Each process also brings its own kind of
satisfaction. The movement toward self-fulfillment has served as a corrective
adjustment, thereby modifying the giving or getting compact, between us and
the environment.
A child is born into this world and acquires a personality in a specific social
environment. In this environment he learns a language, acquires approved
forms of conduct, and attains some degree of adjustment to others. In this
process of learning his behavior is continually reinforced. From this example
we can see that the process for international students in their new
environment is almost the same procedure.
First of all, language is the basic medium of interaction, without which human
social life as we understand it, could not have originated and without which
social participation could not be carried on. In the second place, it is the sole
carrier of culture from one generation to another. In the third place, language
makes possible a common set of meanings, common definitions by which
students regulate their lives.
Apart from language, there can be no significant social and cultural life.
According to Bonner (1953), language as a system of sounds and symbols for
communicating his affective and cognitive experiences is wholly acquired.
Language is a social product, a thing of invention and culture. Language is
group living, language has been an important instrument for making these
needs known and for having them gratified through concerted action.
Language arises and is preserved because of its effectiveness in binding
individuals together into a social group. As means of communication and of
social control, language has played a role second to other human function.
Successful adjustment involves individual initiative, willingness to
communicate and concern for the mutual satisfaction of needs. Personal
fulfillment has greatly enriched our understanding of adjustment. The
movement toward self-fulfillment has served as a corrective to the excessive
element of self-denial implicit the traditional notion of adjustment, thereby
modifying the giving or getting compact between ourselves and the
environment.
From the above mentioned statement, the researcher concludes that the
process of adjustment focuses more towards the individual and his
surroundings. How important it is to know oneself in order to survive daily.
Each individual have needs and desires. In order to be able to meet the
standards of those needs, we need to fully understand ourselves as
interactive beings. If the individual knows himself or herself, adjustment would
be seen as an achievement that is accomplished either badly or well Lazarus
2.1.5 Principles of adjustment.
According to Lehner & Kube (1960), in order to understand why we act the
way we do it is important to remember that our behavior, even such a simple
act as smiling at another individual when passing him on in the street, may be
influenced by many factors. Lehner & Kube (1960) concentrate on three
principles that will follow in exploring the problems of adjustment. These
problems involve the following concepts: one, the individual’s life-space, two,
purposive or goal-directed behavior and behavior as a function of need and
need-reduction, three, the importance of learning in our behavior.
1. The individual’s life-space.
Life-space refers to the environment as we perceive and experience it.
Our relationship to the environment, our perception of certain aspects of
the world around us, our unconscious section of the particular factors to
which we shall react comprises what may be termed as “life-space”. We
use the term “life-space” here in preference to “environment” because we
are not concerned with all aspects of environment but only with that
portion that we experience directly and that therefore affects our behavior.
Basic to our understanding of the life-space of an individual is the fact that
what we perceive in any given situation is influenced not only by the
physical characteristics of that situation, but also by our needs, goals, and
life-space of each individual in order to understand his behavior. For purposes
of analysis, however, we may focus at times on physiological processes,
at other times on psychological needs, or at the still other times on the
characteristics of a given social situation in which a person finds himself.
2. Purposive behavior and behavior as a function of need and need-reduction.
As biological organisms, we all have needs that must be satisfied if we are
to live. These needs have been variously called biological needs, tissue
needs, and life-maintaining needs. They include hunger, thirst, the need
for air, the need for rest, and so forth. Although we can postpone the
satisfaction of these needs to some extend, they must be eventually
satisfied if we are to survive. These needs have their basis in man’s
biological make-up, but their expression and satisfaction is socially
determined. Therefore, to understand what a person will do, how he will
do it, and why he will do it, we need to know something not only about his
biological needs, but also about his social situations in which he has
learned to satisfy these needs. Behavior is a function of both biological
and psychological needs, and of the objects and methods by which we
satisfy these needs. Behavior, in being motivated by our needs, is
3. The central position of learning
An organism’s ability to learn is one of its most important and fundamental
characteristics. Learning is the phenomenon upon which rests the entire
superstructure of our complex mental activity and behavior. Our total
culture and civilization are the products and expression of human learning.
Man’s ability to adapt in this way is essential to his continued existence.
The learning process is the bridge between our innate behavior patterns
and the requirements of our environment. Through the learning process
we acquire not only what has been called “intellectual knowledge,” but
also knowledge of various ways to behave. That is how to greet friends,
express our interest, acquire new attitudes and feelings, approach peoples
of different cultural backgrounds, react to anxieties and threats.
2.2 Loneliness
2.2.1 Definition Loneliness
Peplau, Russel, and Heim stated, that loneliness occurs when a person’s network of social relationships is smaller or less satisfying than the person
desires. Thus, loneliness reflects a discrepancy between the person’s desired
and achieved levels of social interaction, Burger (1986)
People can have very little contact with others, but if they are satisfied with
friends, yet they still feel a need for more than or deeper friendship, and thus
become lonely. This description of loneliness helps to explain why some
people who live in virtual isolation of other human beings find such solitude
enjoyable, while other people who are surrounded by and who constantly
interact with others complain of loneliness.
According to Peplau & Perlman (1982), loneliness occurs when the individual
perceives a discrepancy between two factors, the desired and the achieved
pattern of social relations. Peplau & Perlman (1982) further suggests that
loneliness can be seen as an one end point of continuum for evaluating social
relations. In their view, each person has an optimal level of social interaction.
When the person’s social relation are suboptimal, he or she experiences the
distress of loneliness, in contrast when faced with excessive social contact,
the person my experience the distress of “crowding” or feel an “invasion” of
privacy. Evaluations of one’s social relations are influenced by comparisons
with one’s own past experience and with the experience of other people.
Moustaka (1961) divides loneliness into two categories such as existential
loneliness and loneliness of anxiety. According to Moustaka, the existential
loneliness is a part of human experience, and the loneliness of self-alienation
and self-rejection which is not loneliness at all but a vague and disturbing
Existential loneliness is an intrinsic and organic reality of human life in which
there is both pain and triumphant creation emerging out of long period of
desolation. In existential loneliness man is fully aware of himself as an
isolated and solitary individual while in loneliness anxiety man is separated
from himself as a feeling and knowing person. Loneliness anxiety results from
a fundamental breach between what one is and what one pretend to be, a
basic alienation between man and man and between man and his nature.
From the above mentioned definitions it can be understood that loneliness is
an unpleasant experience that reveals insufficient social interaction.
Loneliness is experienced by all human beings at some time in their life. It is
more likely to occur under circumstances such as prolonged absence from
home or loss of significant others. Feelings of loneliness are like joy, hunger
and sorrow. They can be managed though never completely prevented. A
sense of loneliness reflects a discrepancy between an individual’s
expectations of interpersonal relations of his or her social situation in reality.
Loneliness is a universal emotional and psychological experience. Loneliness
is also seen as a normal experience that leads to individuals to achieve
deeper awareness, a time to be creative and an opportunity to attain
self-fulfillment and to explore meaning of life. Loneliness is condition of human
extend and deepen his or her humanity. However loneliness remains an
unpleasant and distressing experience.
2.2.2 Conceptualizing loneliness
Loneliness is divided into two. These concepts differ in two major ways. It
consists of the social needs and cognitive approaches. The social needs
approach emphasizes the affective aspects of loneliness. The cognitive
approaches emphasize the perception and evaluation of social relations and
relational deficits. Thus proponents of the needs approach suggest a rather
direct link between rational deficits and subjective reactions to these deficits.
The social need approach have suggested that people may experience
loneliness without explicitly defining themselves as lonely or consciously
recognizing the nature of their distress.
In contrast, cognitive theorist emphasizes the lonely person’s perceptions and
reports of rational inadequacies, and direct attention to those people who do
label themselves as lonely.
The cognitive discrepancy theory, which specifies loneliness as the
consequence of altered social perceptions and attributions. Specifically,
loneliness is defined as the distress that occurs when one’s social
From a cognitive discrepancy perspective, it is clear that loneliness is not
synonymous with being alone, nor does being with others guarantee
protection from feelings of loneliness, Peplau & Perlman (1982). Rather,
discrepancies between ideal and perceived interpersonal relationships
produce and maintain feelings of loneliness.
The researcher will investigate both these approaches, because of the fact
that international students suffers from a deficit in their social needs. From a
cognitive approach, students perceive things in different ways, because of all
the different perceptions, its necessary to combine the two approaches.
2.2.3 Multidimensional concept of loneliness
The concept of loneliness concerns situations experienced by the person as
involving a disagreeable or unacceptable lack of the quantity or quality of
certain relationships. It is important to distinguish these subjective feelings of
loneliness from objective social isolation. Objective social isolation refers to
the lack of lasting interpersonal relationships. Loneliness concerns the
manner in which the person perceives, experiences, and evaluates his or her
isolation and lack of communication with other people.
According to Peplau & Perlman (1982), loneliness consists of three
of positive emotions such as happiness and affection, and the presence of
negative emotions such as fear and uncertainty. Two, type of deprivation
refers to the nature of the missing relationships.
And three, time-perspective. This dimension can further be differentiated into three subcomponents:
1. The extent to which loneliness is experienced as being unchangeable.
2. The extend to which loneliness is experienced as temporary.
3. The extend to which person resigns himself or herself to loneliness by
attributing the cause of loneliness to others.
2.2.4 Manifestations of loneliness
A discussion on the manifestations and correlates of loneliness considers
affective, motivational, cognitive, and behavioral factors as well as social
problems. It is of course often difficult to draw the line between relatively
changeable characteristics that accompany loneliness and more enduring
factors that may have caused the loneliness to occur in the first place. The
emphasis here is on potentially transient features of the experience of
loneliness, Peplau & Perlman (1982).
Affective manifestations
Loneliness is an unpleasant experience. As cited in Peplau & Perlman (1982),
people reports to be less happy, less satisfied, more pessimistic, and more
depressed. According to one study by Russel, et. al, lonely college students
were apt to feel angry, self-enclosed, empty, and awkward.
Motivational manifestations
As cited in Peplau & Perlman (1982) Sullivan believed, loneliness was a
“driving” force that motivates people to initiate social interactions despite the
anxiety such interactions may hold for them. Several factors may help resolve
the apparently paradoxical motivational properties of loneliness.
First, loneliness may arouse motivation for inter-personal contact but diminish
motivation for nonsocial activities. Second, loneliness may be arousing yet
interfere with the effective channeling of one’s energies required to complete
tasks successfully. Third, different types of loneliness may have different
motivational properties. Fourth, loneliness may have different motivational
properties over time. Fifth, cognitive factors may mediate the motivational
force of loneliness. Last, but equally plausible, lonely people may fluctuate in
their moods, alternating between periods of high and low motivational arousal
Cognitive factors
According to Peplau &Perlman (1982), there is some evidence that lonely
people may generally be less able to concentrate or focus their attention
self-conscious or self-focused (Jones, Freemon, & Goswick). Research done by
Peplau and her colleagues suggests that lonely people are typically eager to
explain the reasons for their distress. Understanding the causes of loneliness
may be seen as the first step toward predicting, controlling, and ultimately
alleviating loneliness. The type of attributions that individuals make may have
significant affects on their optimism about the future, their effective reactions
to loneliness, their self-esteem, and their coping behavior.
Thus the first-year university student who attributes his or her loneliness to
temporary situational factors may feel more hopeful about improving his or
her social life than another student who attributes his or her loneliness to
relatively unchanging aspects of his or her personality.
Behavioral manifestations of loneliness.
In thinking about the behavioral manifestations of loneliness, it is at times
difficult to distinguish among behavior that accompanies loneliness, behavior
that leads to loneliness in the first place, and behavioral strategies for coping
with loneliness. We can see the behavioral manifestations from three points
of views. First, lonely people may show different patterns self-disclosure than
non-lonely people. It may be that lonely individuals either pour out their hearts
to listeners, or keep their personal lives extremely private. Second, the
behavior of lonely people may reflect a greater self-focus than that of
social risk-taking suggest that lonely people may be less assertive in their
social interactions.
Social and medical problems
Loneliness has been linked to a variety of problems affecting not only
individuals but also our society as a whole. Also of interest are the possible
effects of loneliness on physical health, Peplau&Perlman (1982).
2.2.5 Dimensions of loneliness
Underlying these diverse typologies are three major dimensions concerning
how, one, the person evaluates his or her social situation, two, the type of
social deficit experienced, and three, the time perspective associated with
loneliness.
1. The Evaluative dimension
Philosophers have been often distinguished between positive and negative
aspects of solitude and loneliness. Those in the German philosophical
tradition have discussed the differences between positive and negative
experiences of “Einsamkeit” those in the German philosophical tradition have
discussed the differences between positive and negative experiences of
“Einsamkeit”hose in the German philosophical tradition have discussed the
For example, (Kolbol) has distinguished four types of “Einsamkeit” :
First, a positive, inner type (“splendid isolation”), experienced as a necessary
means of discovering new forms of freedom or contact with other people.
Second, a negative, inner type, experienced as an estrangement from oneself
and from others, a feeling of alienation, even in the midst of others. Third, a
positive external type, present under circumstances of physical solitude when
one searchers for new positive experience. And fourth, a negative, external
type, present when external circumstances (death of a partner, loss of
contacts) lead to very negative feelings of loneliness.
Associated with the evaluative dimensions is a common philosophical
distinction (Moustakas, 1961) between loneliness as a basic fact of human
existence and loneliness as a psychological reaction to relational deficits.
2. The Nature of the Relational Deficit
As cited in Peplau & Perlman (1982) Weis describes his relational deficit
typologies in a fundamental distinction way between emotional and social
loneliness:
The loneliness of emotional isolation
Appears in the absence of a close emotional attachment and can only be
reintegration of the one that had been lost. Those experiencing this form of
loneliness are apt to experience a sense of utter aloneness, whether or not
the companionship of others is in fact accessible to them. The individual may
describe the immediately available world as desolate, barren or devoid of
others, or the sense of utter aloneness may be phrased in terms of an empty
inner world, in which case the individual may say he or she feels empty, dead
or hollow.
The loneliness of social isolation
Is associated with the absence of an engaging social network and this
absence can only be remedied by access to such a network. The dominant
symptoms of this form of loneliness are feeling of boredom or aimlessness,
together with feeling of marginality.
4. Time perspective
A final major dimension concerns the duration of loneliness. As cited in
Peplau & Perlman (1982), (Beck & Young), distinguish among three types of
loneliness:
Chronic loneliness evolves when, over a period of years, the person is not
able to develop satisfying social relations.
Situational loneliness often follows major life stress events, such as the death
situational lonely person typically accepts the loss and recovers from
loneliness. Transient loneliness is the most common form and refers to
shorter bouts of feeling lonely.
2.2.6 Aspects of loneliness
In summary, a variety of loneliness typologies have been presented,
emphasizing three fundamental aspects of loneliness, feelings of deprivation
concerning the absence of certain relationships, Peplau & Perlman, (1982).
A negative evaluation of the situation, feelings of deprivation concerning the
absence of certain relationships, and the time perspective associated with
loneliness.
Most typologies stress one of these aspects as the dominating principle. In
this way, some focus on differences in situational or role characteristics, while
others emphasize differences in time perspective.
2.3 International Students
International students are students who cross national borders for their
education. These students leave behind their family and social network and
become sojourners of other countries. There are 166 active international
students studying at Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta. The
students come from different countries such as, Singpore, Somalia, South
Africa, Thailand, East Timor and Malaysia. The international students are
allowed to study in any faculty at the university. Since the year 2001 Syarif
Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta has been receiving new
international students. The university is not functioning at the level of
international standards. They do not have any facilities that satisfy the needs
of the international students. There are no counseling services available for
the students, which at any university counseling service are one of the most
important things that should be available. There is no international association
available that represent the international students and not to mention no
special activities as a means of interaction between the international students.
Two years ago, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta, establish
an International office. This international office is suppose to help the students
with academic difficulties and paperwork that are needed to be completed at
an annually basis. To the surprise of the students, services that are available
for them is nothing much than shame. Students are never helped on a regular
basis. Academically there is no special data being kept about these students.
Every time students need help, no one is there to see to the needs of the
students. So the students are left in a confused position, having to run up
and down and trying to solve their problems all by themselves.
2.4 The relationship between adjustment and loneliness.
Although intercultural contact is at the heart of the acculturation experience,
the effects of this contact on sojourners' social and psychological adaptation
remain a subject of debate. This is due in part to varying emphases on the
affective, behavioral and cognitive components of acculturation (Ward,
2001a). It is further compounded by competing theoretical approaches that
frame intercultural encounters as a source of uncertainty and anxiety
(Gudykunst, 1985), on one hand, and as an avenue of culture learning and
social support, on the other (Berry, 1997; Bochner, 1982).
Those who have highlighted the benefits of intercultural contact in sojourner
research have examined both the quality and quantity of intercultural
interactions as predictors of adaptation. Research has shown that having
local friends is associated with decrements in psychological distress
(Redmond & Bunyi, 1993). Frequent social contact with host nationals
relates to general adjustment and sojourn satisfaction (Pruitt, 1978;
Torbiorn, 1982).
It has also been associated with communication competence, fewer
academic problems, and fewer social difficulties in student sojourners
1995). These positive findings, however, are by no means uniform; there are
also instances where more frequent contact with host nationals is
associated with negative psychological outcomes for sojourners, including
depression, mood disturbance and identity conflict (Leong & Ward, 2000;
Ward & Kennedy, 1992, 1993a).
Mixed findings such as these should not be surprising in themselves. The
contact hypothesis tells us that contact person is insufficient to enhance
inter-group perceptions and those specific features of the contact, including
the status of its participants and the purpose and the outcomes of the
interactions, have psychological and social consequences for inter-group
relations. Similarly, specific features of intercultural contact are likely to have
psychological and social consequences at the intrapersonal level.
Certainly, the quality of intercultural interactions affects sojourners'
psychological well-being (Stone Feinstein & Ward, 1990). Research has
shown that comfort and satisfaction with host national contact are
associated with greater sojourn satisfaction (Klineberg & Hull, 1979; Rorlich
& Martin, 1991) and enhanced psychological and social adaptation (Searle
