EDITION
A Thesis
Submitted to Letters and Humanities Faculty in Partial Fulfilment of The Requirements
for The Degree of Strata One
SITI KHUMAIROH 1110026000086
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT LETTERS AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH JAKARTA
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Siti Khumairoh, An Analysis of Metaphors in Disaster Preparedness: Learning From Japan and Japan Disaster Sparks Social Media Innovation Articles on The Jakarta Post 2011 Edition. A thesis English department faculty, culture and humanities faculty, state Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta, 2016.
In this research, the writer discussed the use of metaphor on The Jakarta Post in March 26 March, 2011 and 31 March 2011 edition. The aim of this research is to find out the types of metaphors used in the articles of the Jakarta Post Newspaper. Moreover, the writer identifies word or phrases in the sentence according to the type of metaphor to make it easier and understand the implied meaning which contained in the word or phrase on the business articles.
The writer uses qualitative research to analyse the data. The writer also classified metaphor into 3 types, they are: ontological metaphor, orientational metaphor and structural metaphor. To focus on the study, the writer limits herself to analyse twelve data. Furthermore, the writer explains the metaphorical meaning of the word or phrase in the sentence on the articles based on the types metaphorical expression can help the readers to understand the message from the author.
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I hereby declare that this submission is my own work, and that to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by
another person nor material which to a substantial extend that has been accepted
for the any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher
learning, except, where due knowledge has been made in the text.
Jakarta, 21 May 2016
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In the name of Allah, the most gracious, praise and gratitude be to Allah
for giving the writer ability and health to finish this thesis. Blessing is upon our
prophet Muhammad SAW, his descendant and his followers.
This thesis is presented to English Letters Department, Letters and
Humanities Faculty State Islamic University Jakarta as partial of requirements for
the Degree of Strata One. This thesis could not be completed without a great of
help from many people, especially for Mrs. Rima Muryantina, S.Hum., M.Ling as
the writer’s thesis advisors, whose guidance, patience, support and encouragement
from the initial to the final level enable her to develop an understanding of the
subject. Without her guidance, this thesis would not be completed well.
The writer also would like to express the deepest gratitude to those who
helped her finishing this thesis, namely:
1. Prof. Dr. Sukron Kamil, MA, the Dean of Adab Humanities Faculty
2. Dr. H. Muhammad Farkhan, M.Pd, the Assistant of Dean of Letters and
Humanities Faculty.
3. Drs. Saefudin, M.Pd, the Head of English Letters Department and Mrs. Elve
Oktafiyani, M.Hum, the Secretary of English Letters.
4. All the lecturers of English Letters Department who had taught her during her
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6. The writer’s beloved parents: Ibu Erie and Ayah Hasim who always give her
spiritual and financial support during the time of study and the process of making
this thesis.
7. The writer’s sister and grandmother: S.Muthmaina and Dinar Rosnani, who
always giving her support, caring and love to finish this thesis.
8. The beloved friends of the writer: Wardatul Adawiyah, Amelia Mirzanti, Sri
Septi Fajar Utami, and Renita Ross, for the helps supports, laughs, advices, and
concerns.
9. All the writer’s friends at UIN Jakarta, especially in Linguistics A class of
English Letters Department.
Jakarta, 21 May 2016
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ABSTRACT ...i
APPROVAL SHEET ...ii
LEGALIZATION ...iii
DECLARATION ...iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...v
TABLE OF CONTENT ...vii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...1
A. Background of the Study ...1
B. Focus of the Study ...3
C. Research Questions ...3
D. Significance of the Study ...4
E. Research Methodology ...4
1. The Objectives of Research ...5
2.The Method of Research ...5
3.The Technique of Data Analysis ...5
4.The Instrument of the Research ...5
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A. Related Research ...7
B. Semantics and Meaning ...9
C. Metaphors ...11
D. Kinds of Metaphor ...20
1. Structural Metaphor ...21
2. Orientational Metaphor ...23
3. Ontological Metaphor ...26
CHAPTER III RESEARCH FINDINGS ...32
A. The Data Description ...32
B. The Data Analysis ...34
CHAPTER IV CONCLUTION AND SUGGESTION ...55
A. Conclusion ...55
B. Suggestion ...56
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...57
APPENDICES ...59
1
A. Background of the Study
Mass media is one of the tools to get information, people get information through electronic media and print media every day. In the social reality, people tend to see the news of the common things to specific things. By reading the news terrace, they are able to obtain general information from the article. Exposure through short news terrace and informative news, people get solid and interesting information. 1 In the print media, of course, we will meet with a wide range of
writing style, style of language used by speakers or writers as diverse as: comparisons, metaphors, personification, and so on.
The metaphor is one study of semantics is often used in the print article. Semantics is a field of linguistics that studies the relationship between linguistic signs with the things that was tagged. As a linguistic sign, meaning a basic concept of semantic studies.2 In building the concept of meaning, there are three important things namely, symbol the concept of reference and referent.3
1 Nurudin. 2009. Jurnalisme Masa Kini. (Jakarta Rajawali Press), p.78.
2 Abdul Chaer. 1995. Pengantar Semantik Bahasa Indonesia (Jakarta:Rineka Cipta), p.2. 3 Stephen Ullman. 1977.
Metaphor is a linguistic expression to declare a name with another name.4 Then, the metaphor itself has the ability to reach beyond language communicative effect seen in the communication process, the transfer of information occurs frequently. The transfer is then that caused "irregularities”. The “irregularities”
which is a form of metaphor5, metaphor appearance in print media articles can add
variety in the writing.6 In other words, it can be called that no language press without metaphor.
According to Lakoff and Johnson metaphor is a way of conceiving of one thing with the other thing and its primary function is to understanding.7 They also state that metaphor is a device of poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish. Based on the statement, it is clear that some words in a text cannot take literary. However, it can express metaphorically.
Various writings in print media such as in economics, politics, government, sports, and so on. Print media is fertile ground for the use of metaphor. Fertility is supported by the interest of the preacher, writer, or reporter to see a meaning or social phenomena from various sides and reveal it to the reader through the choice of words containing equations and comparisons with other words (metaphors).
In the electronic media especially online news, young people often visit websites news every day, The Jakarta Post‟s twitter account has over six hundred thousand followers every day they update link from their website through twitter
4 Gorys Keraf. 1995.
Diksi dan Gaya bahasa (Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama), p.6. 5
Ibid.,
6 Geoffrey Leech. 2003.
Semantik. (Terj dari Semantics) (Jakarta:Pustaka Pengajar), p.20 7 George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. 2003.
account. In The Jakarta Post website, there are seven columns on News section;
Editor‟s Choice, Business, National, Archipelago, Jakarta, World and Sports.
This study will focus on metaphor that founded on World column 2011.
So, the writer wants to examine The Jakarta Post newspaper because it always updates the news everyday not only in the country but also abroad. The writer focuses on World column because the information is needed by everyone and disaster news is something that catch reader eyes.
This research is expected not only to help the reader to know the message from metaphor but also to add the knowledge while they are reading business articles. Language on column world that complicate the reader to know what the meaning of the terms. Because in disaster articles usually there are metaphor that give sympathy meaning to readers.
B. Focus of the Study
This research focuses on the implicit meaning and types of metaphor content on The Jakarta Post in March 2011 entitled Disaster Preparedness: Learning From Japan and Japan Disaster Sparks Social Media Innovation.
C. Research Questions
1.What types of metaphors on The two Jakarta Post articles in 2011 edition?
2. How does metaphor support the messages in two articles in the Jakarta Post 2011 edition?
D. Significance of the Study
This research is generally expected to increase knowledge and insight into the study of metaphors, especially for study of implicit meaning in metaphor. In addition, the writer expects this study gives a contribute to another research in analyzing the meaning related, and also hope this study will give insight for the readers about how metaphor gives effect to the articles to give a message of empathy.
E. Research Methodology
1. Objectives of Research
The objectives of this research are:
1. To find out of the types and its meaning of metaphor on two articles in The Jakarta post in 2011?
2. The Method of Research
The research uses qualitative method. According to Bogdan and Taylor from James Potter, qualitative methodologies refer to research produce descriptive data: people own written or spoke words and observable behavior.8 The data in this Jakarta Post newspaper, which describes the metaphorical language on two articles in March 2011, and it was intended to explore meaning and types of metaphor.
3. Data Analysis Technique
In this research, the writer uses descriptive analysis technique. Here, the technique used in this research by the writer, the writer collects the world articles of the Jakarta post, read all the articles, explains the meaning of the metaphor word and then categorize the types of metaphor which is used in the sentence of the world articles. After that the writer explain the delivery message contained in metaphor from the author to the reader in The Jakarta Post in 2011 edition.
4. Instrument of the Research
The research instrument used on this research is the data card that contain data which taken from two articles that has metaphorical language. in The Jakarta Post in 2011. Besides the writer, the other supporting instruments of the
research are dictionaries, and also the thesis files saved on the writer‟s
computer,
5. The Unit of Analysis
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THEORETICAL FAMEWORK
A. Related Research
As consideration, the writer lists several theses with similar topics about metaphor. First, Christopher M Schimdt,9in the research entitled Metaphor and Cognition: A Cross-Cultural Study of Indigenous and Universal Constructs in
Stock Exchange Reports, applying the theory of metaphor cognitive introduced
by Lakoff and Johnson in 1980 on a corpus of data from a cross-cultural in the field of business communications, on a business report on the stock exchange which is found in the article the business newspaper in Finland, Sweden, and Germany. The study examined aspects of the similarities and differences in various cultures through metaphor cognitive. The goal is to show, by the way how the two aspects of the earlier intertwine, as well as the way how the two aspects that could be relevant to be a theoretical basis for the study of intercultural communication as well as for solving the problem in terms of understanding the meaning, which can appear in fields particular in intercultural communication. has done a research entitled Metafora Pungutan Lebih Berpotensi Mempengaruhi Struktur Konseptual Bangsa. This research
uses the theory of conceptual metaphor Lakoff and Johnson which states that
9 Christopher M. Schmidt.
metaphor is not only linguistic but also the conceptual mapping of native speakers. To prove their theory.
Lailiyatuz Zuhriyyah10 has done a research entitled An Analysis of Metaphor and Metonymy on Stephenie Meyer Novel Breaking Dawn” in 2011.
She uses theory of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. She examines a meaning of metaphor and metonymy types. Lailiyatuz Zuhriyyah uses the novel as the data to find the implied meaning of metaphor. Furthermore, she analysis metaphor into three types, they are: structural metaphor, orientational metaphor, and ontological metaphor. In her research, she analysis metonymy and divide it into four types, they are: part for whole with three expressions, producer for product with three expressions, container for contained two expressions, and institution for people responsible, place for event, object used for user, action for object, agent for action, prossed for possesior, controller for controlled, with each one expression. So, that the reader can portray clearly the story in the novel.
The other, Ratih Novianti Marlan 11 in her research entitled,
Konseptualisasi Metafora Emosi dalam Rubrik Konsultasi Majalah Mingguan
Wanita Femina reveals the metaphorical conceptualization of emotion in
Indonesian and show the influence of the cultural background of speakers in the formation of emotional metaphor Indonesian. This research gives results
that not all figure of speech used to express the emotions, in addition, this research also showed that the formation of emotional metaphors show concepts are universal.
B. Semantics and Meaning
Semantics and purpose definition based on Abdul Chaer12 in Pengantar Semantik Bahasa Indonesia, the word semantics in Bahasa comes from Greek, Sema, which means sign and symbol. Sign or symbol as a synonym of the word
of Sema, which means sign of linguistics. This sign of linguistics consists of
two parts, component that interpret something and component that defined or the first component. Both of components are sign and symbol, while being marked or in the symbol are something that beyond common language called referent or being indicated.
Afterwards, the word of semantics is agreed as a term that used for linguistics field on study of relation between signs of linguistics with things that are being marked. Therefore, the word of semantics can be interpreted as a study of meanings or significance. The scope of semantics is including meanings or significance that related with language as instrument of communication verbal. A word or lexeme contain meaning or concept. Meaning or concept tend to general, while something that referenced or beyond language tend to be more specific.13
12 Abdul Chaer.
Op Cit., p.31. 13
For sort of meaning, Chaer explained the same thing with Leech in
Pengantar Semantik, which classified into seven meanings; conceptual
meaning, connotative meaning, affective or emotive meaning, stillistika or social meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, and thematic meaning14. Chaer classified connotative meaning, stilistika meaning, affective
meaning, reflective meaning, and collocative meaning into larger group, which is associative meaning. 15 Leech does not define semantics as a specific, he focuses on meaning that he believes could be learned as one of linguistics phenomenon inside his own words, not in beyond language.
We can find a language with looking into meaning between one sentence with one another sentence. 16 Leech sorted out meaning in comprehensive explanation into different seven types. First of all, Leech emphasized on logical meaning or conceptual meaning, which is meaning that has been discussed before with its relation to semantics competence. This meaning is often called denotative or cognitive. Six other types are: connotative meaning, stilistik meaning and affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, associative meaning and thematic meaning. 17
14 Geoffrey Leech. Loc. Cit 15 Abdul Chaer.
Op. Cit., p.59. 16. Goofrey Leech.
Op. Cit., p.18. 17
C. Metaphors
Aristotle defines metaphor as: “metaphor is the transference of a customary terms meaning either from the generic to specific or from the
specific to the specific or from one generic to another or through analogy”.18
Aristotle considered metaphor as an act of substation or removal (transfer). This is according to the etymological meaning of the word metaphor (Greek) which consists of the prefix meta-pherein and verbs. Prefix meta-usually used to convey an idea of the changes, then the verb pherein meaning 'carry'. So literally, the word metaphor has meaning more (transfer).
In addition to the follow-substitution, Aristotle also believes that the metaphors are a form of implicit comparisons are based on the principle of analogy. The view is generally called “the comparison theory of metaphor”.
With regard to the use or function of metaphor, Aristotle assume that the primary function of language metaphor merely ornamental, only as rhetorical tool. 19
There are three characteristic associated with the concept of metaphor according to Aristotle, namely (1) metaphor operates at the level of words (2) metaphor is a form of deviation (deviant) of language, and (3) the similarity relationship between two nominal elements in metaphor words (2)
metaphor is a form of deviation (deviant) of language, and (3) the similarity relationship between two nominal elements in metaphor. 20
Aristotle’s remarks concerning this relation have caused a lot of
confusion. As said, various authors think that he sees metaphor as an
abbreviated simile, but he actually says the very opposite of this, simile, too,
is a kind of metaphor; for it differs only slightly, What we can conclude of
this suggestion that not simile, but metaphor is the more general notion?
Let us look at Aristotle’s argument. If a poet says, using a simile, that Roy rushed on like a lion , he does practically the same thing as with the
metaphorical the lion rushed on’ said of the same human being: for both
brave, (the poet) metaphorically (lit.,carrying over) names Roya lion.
Unfortunately, this passage does not really make a clear distinction between
metaphor and simile at all. We might be tempted to attribute the slight
difference precisely to the fact that the metaphor, unlike the simile, involves
a transfer.
The closure of positivism in the middle of this century was the beginning of the reevaluation of the concept of metaphor. Metaphor is no longer seen as merely a figure of speech 'figure of speech' alone, but rather the ability of the figurative language to express meaning.
In his essay, IA Richards (1936), as quoted by Ortony, states that "In the simplest formulation, when we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or phrase whose meaning is a resultant of reviews their interaction".21 Relying on his statement, Richards synthesizing the concept of comparison Aristotle by proposing three elements that can be assessed in a metaphor, namely (1) tenor /topic 'intent' (issues discussed), (2) vehicle 'vehicle' (the comparison / likened ), and (3) ground 'basic' (common feature which is owned by the tenor and the vehicle.22 All three of these elements can be seen in the following example. be prepared for a mountain of paperwork. vehicle in this example is a mountain which has been the domain source for metaphors have meaning "numerous, plentiful" as tenor / topic. the relationship between these two things, the size / amount of large, becomes the metaphor ground.
In 1955, Max Black filed three point views on the operating metaphor. The third viewpoint is the substitution view, comparison view, and interaction view23. Based on viewpoint substitution, metaphor operations are in literal statement that has meaning metaphorically. The process of understanding a metaphor includes two process, namely (1) recognize a form of the word /expression /utterance /particular /polysemy, then (2) the word/expression/speech is uttered with the aim interpreted secondary (in this case metaphorically), and not literal by partner said. In the other words,
21 Andrew Ortony. Loc.,Cit.
metaphors focus on secondary meaning (in this case metaphorical) are substituted to form the word/ expression/utterance others who have literal meaning. For example, the metaphor Dewi is a snake that has meaning Dewi is a
cunning person. The essence of metaphor is similarity properties or analogy between Dewi and snakes. In this case, the meaning of a metaphorical snake, the evil and cunning, substituting the word that has the literal meaning “Dewi”.
Metaphor from the perspective of substitution, can be expressed as follows. 24
A has literal meaning A
B has literal meaning B1
has metaphorical meaning B2
Metaphor: B2 is substituted for A
Through the scheme, it can be seen that in, word/expression/utterance B is polysemy; metaphorical relations and substitution seen the relation between B2 and A.
For example, the Dewi metaphor comprehension is a snake, it needed understanding from hearer of how and why the character of a person named Dewi same like a snake. Scheme of metaphor from comparison point of view as follows:25
A has literal meaning A
B has literal meaning B
Metaphor: A is like B
Because of the substitution and comparison point of views only focuses on interpretation of the lexical level course, both point of views do not consider the process of forming meaning at the level of semantics when interpreting metaphorical statement as a whole. Black offers a theory which he believes more adequate, which are; the theory of interaction, which combines theory of substation and theory of comparative.
Black through interaction view, assume that there is a verbal opposition (interaction) between the meaning of the phrase is used metaphorically to literal meaning .26 Furthermore, Black explain the implications of the metaphor as a projection of a set associative (analogy) that may similarity and analogy of a entity (focus/secondary subject) to another entity (the frame/primary subject).27 For example, in the metaphor of Budi is a wolf ,wolf as a focus/secondary subject
and Budi as a frame/primary subject. The meaning of the metaphor can be
obtained from interaction between those two, by applying the common-place in wolves to Budi character like creepy, mischievous, grumpy.
Searle, as quoted by Jaszczolt, sorting out traditional view of metaphor, namely; first, the comparison view, argues that the metaphorical expression
26 Murray Knowles and Rosamund Moon. Loc.Cit.
compares similarity or the similarity between objects; secondly, interaction view, assume that there are verbal oppositions between the meaning of phrase that used metaphorically with literal meaning.28 According to Searle, as quoted Jaszcolt, both of views are mistaken for two reasons. First, metaphorical expression has its own actual truth, regardless of its literal meaning.
In other words, the element of similarity between the object is not required. Second, with presuppose the existence of verbal opposition in metaphorical expression, then the metaphor closer to the literal meaning than what meaning that is meant to speaker. The phenomenon of metaphor, Searle says, is similar to the phenomenon of irony and indirect speech-act. Based on those explanations, he argues that the metaphorical meaning is not the meaning of the sentence, because the meaning of the phrase is a literal meaning. More simply stated, the meaning of the sentence is the literal meaning, and the meaning of the speaker is a metaphorical meaning. He further considered metaphor a pragmatic phenomenon, namely providing a different purpose from those expressed meaning (better known as locutions-illocutionary).
According to Searle, meaning that the center of attention is the meaning of the speech being communicated. Studied metaphorically meaning is what is in accordance with the will of the speaker. For example, the metaphor "Aku terhanyut dalam cinta" cannot be interpreted semantically with absolute reliance
on the elements of language. To understand the metaphorical meaning of addressees (hearer) need to understand the intent of the speaker through their speech, which in this case refers to the sense in love felt by speakers. As it goes, to understand the meaning of utterances, a hearer must have enough knowledge to help understand the meaning conveyed by the speaker earlier.
Searle describes the construction of metaphor in a simple formula, namely S is P. S is the subject of or things that are used as a reference, while P is raised within the meaning of substitutions. Formula S and P is interpreted by S and R. R in this case is the meaning to be communicated through speaker.29 For example, metaphor "Joni is a pig". Joni in this case is S and P. The word pig is a pig
indicated meaning lazy and big eater. This indication is further defined by R. Relying on this formula, the construction can be interpreted metaphorically as
“Joni is a pig”means “Joni likes to eat a lot and lazy.”
Searle in his article titled "Metaphor" in the article The Philosophy of Language formulation of principles that can be used to interpret the meaning of the metaphor. Those principles are as follows: 30
1. P is defined as R
In this principle the definition of R is one of the most highlight feature of
P. For example, “Bima is a giant” metaphor “Bima is a giant” can be
interpreted into “Bima is a big guy” because giant can be defined as
something big. Aristotle would hold the formers against the hearer expectations for it becomes
2. P is part of the meanings of R
In this principle properties of R is a part of P. For example, metaphor “Joni
is a pig.” “Joni is a pig” can be interpreted into Joni likes to eat and lazy.
3. P believed to be R, although speaker and hearer know that R isn’t P
For example, “'Gani is a gorilla.” Gani is interpreted into a mean, nasty, violence, and so on. The word gorilla interpreted as something cruel, capable of hurting, and rude although both speaker and hearer know beliefs that are hereditary have constructed the human mind that gorillas are animals that are rude and cruel. In other words, both the speaker and hearer know that R is not P, in this case the meaning of cruel and rude is not associated with the actual nature of the gorilla.
Ortony reveals one of the experts who examine the metaphor of a psychological point of view. The expert, George A. Miller (1983), argues that there are three stages to be skipped in the process of understanding the metaphor namely, recognition, reconstruction, and interpretation.31
The third stage emphasizes the idea of metaphor related to the concept relation to the ground which can be formulated as a relationship between elements in the construction of metaphor, which can then be expressed as a statement of
comparison. Therefore, he called it the relational metaphor. For example, relationships between elements in question can be seen in metaphorical expression
green ideas (1983: 246). The word green in this metaphorical expression has a
relation with the meaning of immaturity and unpreparedness. In this case, the concepts of constructing meaning of metaphorical expression green ideas as a whole, namely the ideas of immature or not ready.
In the contrary to Searle, Cohen (1979), quoted by Jaszczolt, argues that the meaning of the metaphor lies in the sentence, not on the speaker. He believes that there is a cancellation of certain characteristics of an object owned by another drawn with the components of semantic meaning of the word, example, the word
gold has its own metaphor meaning because certainly reject the features of the
word metal.32Cohen (1979) further stated that the study of metaphor can be done
at the level of semantics. In this method, he introduced two methods used in assessing the semantic meaning in the metaphor. Two methods are meant by it is the method of cancellation 'cancellation' and methods of multiplication or duplication.33
In this regard, Cohen gives two examples of instances in the following sentences.
1. A lion eats ten pounds of meat a day
2. Stone lion needs no feedings
Sentence (1) lion that features animals symbolized by a moving creature (denoted by feature + Animate) whereas in the sentence (2) the feature was canceled because of the lion in the sentence (2) are not animals as expressed in the sentence (1) in this case the lion do not feature + Animate.
D. Kinds of Metaphor
George Lakofff, Mark Johnson in their book Metaphors, We Live By (1980) and Zoltan Kövecses in his book, Metaphor: A Practicial Introduction (2010) divided metaphors into three types, they are: structural metaphor, orientational metaphor and ontological metaphor.34 However, Kövecses classified
for the purposes of clearer exposition, conceptual metaphors can be classified according to the cognitive functions that they perform. There are explanations about three types of metaphors:
1. Structural Metaphor
In this kind of metaphor, the source domain provides a relatively rich knowledge structure for the target concept. In other words, the cognitive function of these metaphors is to enable speakers to understand target A by means of the structure of source B.35 Meanwhile, according to Lakoff to give of what it could mean for a concept to be metaphorical and for such a concept
34George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By, (London: The University of Chicago Press, 1980),p 37.
“ARGUMENT IS WAR”. This metaphor is reflected in our everyday language by a wide variety of expressions36:
“ARGUMENT IS WAR”
Your claims are indefensible. He attacked every weak point my argument. I demolished his argument.
Many of the things in arguing are partially structured by the concept of war. In fact, as it can be seen, people do not just talk about arguments in term of war but it influences from they thought because that conceptual structures. Someone can actually win or lose arguments, plan and use strategies. If a position is indefensible, it can abandon and take a new line of attack. However, in this sense Argument is War structures the action performs in arguing and of course the term it is influenced by culture. Therefore, there is similarity between conceptual system and experience. The way people talk about argument that way because they conceive that way and they act according to the way they conceive things. From the example above there is similarity between the concept of Argument and the concept of War.
Lakoff and Johnson believe that mappings are not based on similarities but on the correlating elements in source and target domain. To make it clearer, the writer takes the example from metaphorical concept “Argument is War”
and the explanation of source, target and mappings will be put on the table below:
Table 1: Argument is War
Source: War Target: Argument
Position Combatant Same Position Different Position
Opinion Conflict Agreement Disagreement
From the table above, it can be explained that the correspondences or mappings characterized the Argument is War conceptual metaphor. The elements of source domains are in systematic correspondence with the elements of target domains. The aspects in source war is a combatant. In target arguments this corresponds to or map onto conflicts. Finally, it can be concluded that the aspects in concepts of War are map into the concepts of Argument.
2. Orientational Metaphor
conceptual system. 37 Orientational metaphors give concepts spatial orientation by associating an abstract knowledge area with some aspect of experiential knowledge grounded in how human beings understand their orientation in physical spaces of up vs down, and front vs back, etc.38 Such metaphorical orientations are not arbitrary.
They have a basis in our physical and cultural experience. The orientational metaphors based on them can vary from culture to culture. In each case, will give a brief hint about how each metaphorical concept might have arisen from our physical and culture experience.39 According to William Nagy cited from George Lakofff and Mark Johnson in their book: Metaphors, We Live By (1980), there are the illustrations of Up-Down in Orientational metaphors:40
1. HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN
I‟m feeling up. That boosted my spirits. My spirits rose. I‟m feeling
down. I‟m depressed. He‟s really low these days. Physical basis: Dropping
posture typically goes along with sadness and depression, erect posture with a positive emotional state. HAPPY IS UP defines a coherent system, example:
“I‟m feeling up” means “I‟m feeling happy.”
2. CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN
37Zoltan Kövecses, 2010. Metaphor: A Practical Introduction, 2nd Edition. (Oxford: Oxford University Press) p. 40
38James R. Hurford,. At.al. 2007. Semantics: A Course Book, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press) p. 335.
Get up. Wake up. I‟mup already. He fell asleep. He dropped off to sleep. He‟s under hypnosis. Physical basis: Human and most animals sleeps lying
down and stand erect when they wake up.
3. HEALTH AND LIFE ARE UP; SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN
He‟s at the peak of health. Lazurus rose from the dead. He‟s in top shape.
He came down with the flu. His health is declining. Physical basis: Serious illness forces us physically to lie down, when you‟re dead yore physically
down.
4. HAVING CONTROL OR FORCE IS UP; BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL OR FORCE IS DOWN
I have control over her. I am on topof the situation. He‟s in a superior
position. He is my social inferior. He is low man on the totem pole.
Physical basis: Physical size typically correlates with physical strength, and the victor in a fight is typically on top.
5. MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN
The number of books printed each year keeps going up. His draft number
is high. His income fell last year. He is underage. Physical basis: If you add
more substance or of a physical objects to a container or pile, the level goes up.
6. FORESEEABLE FUTURE EVENTS ARE UP (AND AHEAD) All upcoming events are listed in the paper. What‟s coming up this
What‟sup.? Physical basis: Normally our eyes are in direction in which we typically move (ahead, forward). As an object of a person (or the person approaches the object) the object appears larger. Since the ground is a perceived as being fixed, the top of being object appears to be moving
upward in the person‟s field of a vision.
7. HIGH STATUS IS UP; LOW STATUS IS DOWN
He has a lofty position. She‟ll rise to the top. He‟s at the peak of his career. He‟s at the bottom of the social hierarchy. She fell in status in status. .
Social and Physical basis: Status is correlated with power (social) and power is UP (physical)
8. GOOD IS UP; BAD IS DOWN
Things are looking up. We hit a peak last year, but it‟s been downhill
ever since. Things are at an all-time low. Physical basis for personal
well-being: happiness, health, life and control; the things that principally characterize what is good as a person are all UP
9. VIRTUE IS UP; DEPRAVITY IS DOWN
He is high-minded. She has high standards. She is upright. That was a low-down thing to do. Physical and social basis: Good is up for a person
(physical basis) together with the society as a person metaphor (in the version
10. RATIONAL IS UP; EMOTIONAL IS DOWN
The discussion fell to the emotional level, but I raised it back up to the rational plane. He couldn‟t rise above his emotions. Physical cultural basis: in
this culture, people view themselves as being in control over animals, plants, and their physical environment, and it is their unique ability to reason that places human being above them and gives human this control. Control is up.
which has a physical basis, thus provides a basis for man is up, and therefor
for rational is up.41
3. Ontological Metaphor
An ontological metaphor is a metaphor in which an abstraction, such as an activity, emotion, or idea, is represented as something concrete, such as an object, substance, container, or person. 42 Ontological metaphors provide much less cognitive structuring for target concepts than structural ones do. (Ontology is a branch of philosophy that has to do with the nature of existence).43 According to Lakoff, ontological metaphors serve various purpose, and the various kinds of metaphors that are reflect the kinds of purposes served.44
In general, ontological metaphors enable us to see more sharply delineated structure where there is very little or none:
Table 2:
41George Lakoff , Op. Cit., p.15-17 42 James R. Hurford,
Op. Cit., p.335 43 Zoltan Kövecses,
Op. Cit., p .38 44 George Lakoff ,
[image:35.595.114.516.236.569.2]Source domain Target domains
Physical object 1.Nonphysical or abstract entities (eg.,the mind)
2.Events (e.g., going to the race) 3. Action (e.g.,giving someone a call)
Substance Activities (e.g., a lot of running in the game)
Container 1. Undelineated physical object (e.g., a clearing in the forest)
2. physical and nonphysical surfaces (e.g., land areas, the visual field) 3.states (e.g., in love45
The range of ontological metaphors that we use for such purposes is huge. The following list gives some idea of the kinds of purposes, along with respentative examples of ontological metaphors that serve them:46
Speakers can use these metaphors for more specific jobs: 1) To refer, to quantify, to identify aspects of the experience that has been made more delineated. For example, “My fear of insects is driving my wife crazy.”
Conceiving of fear as an object we can conceptualize it as conceiving of fear
as an object, we can conceptualize it as our possession. Thus, we can linguistically refer to fear as my fear, or your fear.
We can conceive of personification as a form of ontological metaphor. In personification, human qualities are given to nonhuman entities. Personification is very common in literature, but it also abounds in everyday discourse. Examples: “His theory explained to me the behaviour of chickens
raised in factories.” “Life has cheatedme.” “Inflation is eating upour profits.” “Cancer finally caught up with him.” “The computer went dead on me.”47
Theory, life, inflation, cancer, com puter are not humans, but they are given qualities of human beings, such as explaining, cheating, eating, catching up, and dying. Personification makes use of one of the best source domains we have – ourselves. In personifying nonhumans as humans, we can begin to understand them a little better
As in the case of the orientational metaphors, most of these
expressions are not noticed as being metaphorical, one reason for this is
that ontological metaphors, like orientational metaphor, serve a very
limited range of purposes; referring, quantifying, etc. Merely vieweing an
nonphysical thing as an entity or substance does not allow us to
comprehend very much about it. But ontological metaphors may be
expanded. Here are two example of how ontological metaphor the mind is
an entityhave a meaning “The mind is a machine”48:
We‟re still trying to grind out the solution to this equation.
My mind just isn’t operating today. Boy, the wheels are turning now!
I‟m a little rusty today.
We‟ve been working on this problem all day and
now we‟re running out of steam.49
These metaphors specify different kinds of objects. They give us different metaphorical models for what the mind is and allow us to focus on different aspects of mental experience. The MACHINE metaphor gives us a conception of the mind as having an on-off state, a level of efficiency, a productive capacity, an internal mechanism, a source of energy, and an operating condition. metaphor see events, activities emotions, and ideas as entities and substance. For example in the metaphor "THE MIND IS A MACHINE" in the sentence "My mind is not operating today" ontological metaphors are metaphors conceptualizing the thoughts, experiences, and process more abstract things-to something that has physical properties. In other words, the ontological metaphors assume abstract noun as a concrete noun.
THE MIND IS A BRITTLE OBJECT Her ego is very fragile.
48 George Lakoff ,
Op. Cit., p.27. 49
You have to handle him with care since his wife' s death. He broke under cross-examination. She is easily crushed.
The experience shattered him. I'm going to pieces.
His mind snapped.
The BRITTLE OBJECT metaphor allows us to talk only about psychological strength. However, there is a range of mental experience that can be conceived of in terms of either metaphor. The examples we have in mind are these:
He broke down. (THE MIND IS A MACHINE)
He cracked up. (THE MIND IS A BRITTLE OBJECT)
But these two metaphors do not focus on exactly the same aspect of mental experience. When a machine breaks down, it simply ceases to function. When a brittle object shatters, its pieces go flying, with possibly dangerous consequences,for example, when someone goes crazy and becomes wild or violent, it would be appropriate to say "He cracked up." On the other hand, if someone becomes tired and unable to function for psychological reasons, we would be more likely to say "He broke down."
31
A. Data Description
In this research, the technique of data collecting is using bibliography technique. The data are collected by using written sources from the articles. The steps to collect data are, searching the articles, entitled,
Disaster Preparedness: Learning from Japan and Japan Disaster Sparks Social Media Innovation from The Jakarta Post website. Read the
entire text to determine the metaphorical sentence used in those articles. When collecting data is complete, then data will be chosen randomly. After that, the chosen data will be classified based on the types of metaphor, the next step is finding the mapping to see the relation between source domain and target domain in metaphor. The last is discovering the meaning of the metaphorical language used in the articles.
articles. After analyzing two The Jakarta Post articles on March 26 2011, and March 31 2011, the writer found 12 metaphors in the articles, they are: 1 structural metaphors, 4 orientational metaphors, and 7 ontological metaphors.
No Metaphorical Expressions Types
1. In the immediate aftermath of disaster that likely killed more than 18.000 people, phone and cellular networks were either
down or overwhelmed with traffic.
Orientational Metaphor
2 City administration in Japan were fully aware that they lived under the constant
threat of earthquakes and tsunamis.
Orientational Metaphor
3 The numbers underscore the increasingly valuable role that social media, particularly Twitter, can play in the wake of natural disasters.
Ontological metaphor
4 We witnessed how the city emergency response system worked effectively during the powerful earthquake and tsunami that recently shook Japan.
Structural Metaphor
5 That‟s something that concerns Web designer Qanta Schimizu as well. But he sees a greater good in embracing social
media in time of crisis.
Ontological metaphor
6 Nearby cities like Musashino and Koganei have also signed up for Twitter.
Orientational Metaphor
7 In 1955, when a massive earthquake devastated the western city of Kobe, the internet was in its infancy and the mass
media controlled the flow of information.
8 Once the magnitude of the March 11 disaster become clear, the online world began asking, “How can we help?”
Ontological Metaphor
9 And for that, social media offered the ideal platform for good ideal to spread quickly, supplementing and even rivaling efforts launched by giants like Google and
Facebook.
Ontological Metaphor
10 Twitter was already a big hit on Japan,
where more than three-quarters of the population is connected to the Internet
Ontological Metaphor
11 Video streaming provider Ustream and Japanese video sharing platform Nico Nico Douga also saw viewership climb.
Orientational Metaphor
12 On normal days, parks can become water catchment areas, lungs of the city and tourists‟ attraction.
Ontological Metaphor
B. Data Analysis
1. Metaphor
Metaphor is defined as understanding conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain. A conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains, in which one domain is understood in terms of another. a. Datum 1:
In the immediate aftermath of disaster that likely killed more than 18.000
people, phone and cellular networks were either down or overwhelmed with
traffic.
Explanation:
The expression shows case of orientational metaphor, in which there is spatial orientation “Down.” Based on physical and cultural experience that physical basis for personal well-being: happiness, health, life and control; the things that principally characterize what is bad as a person are all down. Thus,
the conceptual metaphor is “Bad Is Down,” there is cross domain mapping, that is, the concrete domain of direction or spatial orientation “down” is
mapped onto abstract domain of personal well-being “Bad” in which the target domain is “Bad” andthe source domain is “Down.”
Basically, orientation “Down” means a lower position, or less number of certain thing, but in the sentence, “Down” here means can‟t be use at the
moment by people. Traffic on phone and cellular networks means messages or data conveyed through such a system.50 During a certain day or event,
especially important event like earthquakes, many citizens would use phone or search news from their mobile internet at the same time, which is caused
the traffic, which led to the phone can‟t access the data because so many
people use it. The phone and cellular networks were down at the moment can make citizens become more panic and worry about it, which is a bad situation for them.
This orientational metaphorical expression found in Japan Disaster Sparks Social Media Innovation article. The metaphor supports the idea of social
networks has valuable role in today‟s society, the metaphor “Down is Bad”
which describes the negative effects to readers, as a result, it gives empathy implicit messages of how social media can be very important in unpleasant situation and it‟s a bad thing if we can‟t access it at the moment.
b. Datum 2:
City administration in Japan were fully aware that they lived under the
constant threat of earthquakes and tsunamis.
Explanation:
The expression shows case of orientational metaphor, in which there is spatial orientation “Under” before the noun constant threat. According to Lakoff, based on physical and cultural experience that physical size typically correlates with physical strength, and the victor in a fight is typically on top.
goes along with “down” means being subject to the control.51 Thus, the conceptual metaphor of the expression above is “being subject to the control
is down”, in which spatial orientation “Down” as source domain is mapped
onto “subject controlled” as the target domain.
Basically, orientation “Under” means in, to or through a position that is
below something, but because of the physical and cultural experience that one on top having control and the lower one is subject to the control, then “Under” here means as subject controlled. The sentence above explained, the situation where Japanese has to live under the threat of earthquakes and tsunamis every day. Japan has had a long history of earthquakes and seismic activity. It is an area of high seismicity because of its location near three major tectonic plate boundaries, and is situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire.52 Being in controlled by threat means there is nothing can Japanese do to eliminate those threats.
This orientational metaphorical expression found in Disaster preparedness: Learning from Japan article. The article explains, Indonesia
also can learn how Japan handles the natural disaster. The metaphor supports the idea of Japanese situation is always prone to natural disasters, implies the weak conditions that make them more able to put out ideas to overcome them, and it gives the persuasive effect to readers to learn from Japan.
c. Datum 3:
51George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By, (London: The University of Chicago Press, 1980), p.16
The numbers underscore the increasingly valuable role that social media,
particularly Twitter, can play in the wake of natural disasters.
Explanation:
The expression shows case of ontological metaphor. In this case above, the metaphorical expression in the wake of natural disasters is found. The word “Wake” has literal meaning emerge or cause to emerge from sleep; stop sleeping.53 Generally, the word “Wake” is used for human, but in this sentence it is used for Natural Disasters. So, the metaphorical expression is
“Natural Disasters are Human.” Based on the Oxford Dictionary, natural disaster means a natural event such as a flood, earthquake, or hurricane that causes great damage or loss of life. 54
There is the equivalent comparison between conceptual mapping
“Natural Disasters are Human” that target domain “Natural Disasters” is
conceived in source domain “Human.” The mappings to support this
conceptual metaphor as follows:
“Natural Disasters are Human”
Source: Human Target: Natural Disasters Human => Natural Disasters Wake => Event Cause to emerge => Cause a damage Natural disasters fall into three broad groups:
53http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/wake
Those caused by movements of the Earth. These occurs with the minimum amount of warning and include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis. They are difficult to predict and impossible to stop. All that can be done is to take appropriate action to limit damage and loss of life after they occur.55 Same with human, usually human wake from their sleep by
something, it can be someone or something wake them up, or object like alarm, or our body contacted with certain object that caused us wake from sleep. In the sentence above, explained that Twitter has significant impact to keep citizens being informed by natural disasters related news. The number of following natural disasters news increasing on Twitter, which is really helped people to know about the emergence of natural disasters. The sentence above is the type of ontological metaphor that enables us to see more sharply delineated structure of natural disaster that we do not know precisely.
This ontological metaphorical expression found in Japan Disaster Sparks Social Media Innovation article. The metaphor supports the idea of social
media, in today‟s society, considers Twitter as a one of the things that cannot be ignored, particularly among Millennials. Twitter becomes a part of our life,
which leads the readers to feel Twitter as human being. “In the wake of
natural disaster,” gives the same idea to readers, to explain natural disaster as a human, a part of life of every Japanese, as a result to give the closeness effect to the readers.
d. Datum 4:
We witnessed how the city emergency response system worked effectively during the powerful earthquake and tsunami that recently shook Japan.
Explanation:
The expression shows case of structural metaphor. From the sentence above, the metaphorical expression Shook and earthquake and tsunami are
found. The expression shows case of metaphor by using adjective Shook to
noun Japan. Generally, Shook is used for human being, based on Oxford
Dictionary, shook; (of a person, part of the body, or the voice) tremble uncontrollably from a strong emotion.56 Both earthquake and tsunami are natural disaster. A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth; examples include floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic processes. A natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage and typically leaves some economic damage in its wake, the severity of which depends on the affected population's resilience, or ability to recover.57 The metaphorical expression
that can be used is “Earthquake and tsunami are Human .” Officially the verb
shook is used to substance, precisely human, but in this case, adjective shook
is used to Japan, which is country. As well-known Human and Earthquake
and Tsunami are two different things, so there is the equivalent comparison
between conceptual mapping “Earthquake and Tsunami are Human,” that
56http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/shook 57 G. Bankoff, G. Frerks, D. Hilhorst (eds.) 2003.
target domain “Earthquake and Tsunami” is conceived in source domain
“Human.” The mappings to support this conceptual metaphor as follows:
“Earthquake and Tsunami are Human”
Source: Human Target: Earthquake and Tsunami
Human => Earthquake and Tsunami
Have a emotion => Natural disaster Strong emotion (tremble, shock, angry) => Cause of damaged
The sentence above, explains the emotion that refers to the feeling of Japanese being shocked and tremble because of the earthquake and tsunami. The writer uses the words earthquake and tsunami to represents the whole citizens; Japanese. The sentence also can describes as the current situation of Japanese people, which is unsteady and weak. This feeling can damage human either mentally or physically, instead such in healthy or strong, can make human safe. Thus human is in unsteady condition and needs to be taken care of. Since the source of domain (human) provides a relativity rich knowledge structure for the target domain (Japan), so it is a type of structural metaphor.
This structural metaphorical expression found in Disaster preparedness: Learning from Japan article. The metaphor supports the idea of earthquake
is expected to give the readers more empathy to Japanese and how they handle the situation.
e. Datum 5
That’s something that concerns Web designer Qanta Schimizu as well. But
he sees a greater good in embracing social media in time of crisis.
Explanation:
The sentence above shows ontological metaphor. From the sentence above, the metaphorical expression embracing social media is found. The
expression shows case of metaphor by using verb embracing to noun social media. Officially, embracing is used for substance, but in this case it is used for social media. Thus, there is conceptual mapping “Social media Is Substance” in which, target domain “Social media‟ is conceived in source
domain “Substance‟ which has can be held and has affection. Actually, social media is an abstract and not clearly delineated experience, so the knowledge about it is not rich. But by this mapping, it is given ontological status, it is identified as a substance, that we can refer it and understand more about it. This is type of ontological metaphor that enables us to see more sharply delineated structure of memory that we do not really know precisely.
Literally, verb “embrace” means to Hold (someone) closely in one‟s
arms, especially as a sign of affection, 58but in this case “embracing” used for
social media rather to accepting or using social media in time of crisis. In the
sentence, web designer Qanta Schimizu explained that in the bad events, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, there are many unfounded rumors are spreading through social media, which can make led people to become more panic, but despite of that, we still can see many good things and greater influence by accepting or using social media in the middle of unpleasant events.
This ontological metaphorical expression found in Japan Disaster Sparks Social Media Innovation article. The metaphor supports the idea of social
media, in today‟s society, considers social media has a negative or advantage side, but despite those problems, Twitter helps people in unpleasant situation, embracing social media as a person, invites readers to continue to use social media and follow the development of social media innovation for improvement of helping people.
f. Datum 6
Nearby cities like Musashino and Koganei have also signed up for Twitter.
Explanation:
This expression shows case of orientational metaphor, in which there is a spatial orientation “Up.” Based on physical and cultural experience that physical basis for add more substance or of a physical object to a container or pile, the level goes up, then “Up” here goes along with the positive to a container or pile namely, more. Thus the conceptual metaphor is “More is Up”
spatial orientation “Up” is mapped onto abstract domain of pile “More” in
which the target domain is “More” and the source domain is “Up”.
Basically, orientation “Up” means towards or higher position, but because of the physical and cultural experience that erect posture goes along with positive pile state, then “Up” here means More. In the sentence, people who lived in Musashino city and Kogamai city made a Twitter account and signed up as users, to keep up and searching news related to natural disaster even, that explained the benefits obtained by Twitter as social media, because it brings more and more people to use it.
This orientational metaphorical expression found in Japan Disaster Sparks Social Media Innovation article. The metaphor supports the idea of Twitter
has valuable role in today‟s society, the metaphor “More is Up” which describes the positive effects to the readers, as a result, it gives implicit messages of how social media can be very important in unpleasant situation. Twitter gives fast updates and live hashtag reports, available for an upgrade for better social media, can also give a persuasive effect to the reader for make a Twitter account.
g. Datum 7
In 1955, when a massive earthquake devastated the western city of Kobe,
the internet was in its infancy and the mass media controlled the flow of
Explanation:
The expression shows case of ontological metaphor. In this case above, the metaphorical expression the internet was in its infancy is found. The word “Infancy” has literal meaning of the state or period of babyhood or early childhood.59 Furthermore, the word “infant or infancy” refers to baby or child,
in the sentence above, it is used for the internet. So, the metaphorical expression is “The Internet is Baby.” Based on the Oxford Dictionary, the internet means a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities, consisting of interconnected networks using standardized communication protocols. 60
There is the equivalent comparison between conceptual mapping “The internet is Baby” that target domain “The internet” is conceived in source
domain “Baby.” The mappings to support this conceptual metaphor as
follows:
“The Internet is Baby”
Source: Baby Target: The Internet Baby => The Internet Infancy => Beginning Grow => Develop
As the sentence above, explained that in the 1955, the internet in japan was still in the really early stage of development of the internet, not many Japanese own computer in their home, let alone a mobile phone. They used to
get information from mass media only. compared to now, when technology is part of our life. Unlike baby, the internet will always develop from time to
time, but as for now, it‟s out of their early stage, just like baby who become a child, teenager, and adult, the internet also has their stages of development to become more useful for users, to keep us informed, example live report from natural disasters.
This ontological metaphorical expression found in Japan Disaster Sparks Social Media Innovation article. The metaphor supports the idea of social media‟s development, and new innovations throughout the development of social media. Infancy as a term for human, used for social media, to help the reader connect, understand that social media also go through the process of infancy like humans.
h. Datum 8
Once the magnitude of the March 11 disaster become clear, the online world began asking, “How can we help?”
Explanation:
The expression shows case of ontological metaphor. In this case above, the metaphorical expression online worldis found. The word “Online” has literal
meaning of an activity or service; available on or performed using the Internet or other computer network.61 There are many activities, including transaction activity that has to do with online, such as online banking and online
shopping. The word “world” means the earth, together with all of its countries and peoples.62 The word of “online world” itself is a noun, and can be interpreted as many things, seeing development at this time, the Internet is a basic requirement for the wider community. No longer a luxury item, the internet is now easily obtained accessible. Various jobs or needs can be easily resolved through the internet. Services that exist on the internet is very helpful, moreover, is not just one type of service, in many internet services ready to assist the needs of netizens.
The online word in the sentence above specifically only refers to social media, more precisely, the people behind big social media company and search engine. Furthermore, it refers to social media only for helping the citizens by offering good platform such as Google, Facebook and Twitter to spread the news quickly, and it explains how Japan disasters sparks social media innovation.
This ontological metaphorical expression found in Japan Disaster Sparks Social Media Innovation article. The metaphor supports the idea of using
online world term to engage or persuade the reader to feel how social media cares about Japan disasters, and social media offers the ideal platform for good ideas to spread quickly, which also leads social media to promote their innovations.
i. Datum 9
And for that, social media offered the ideal platform for good ideal to spread quickly, supplementing and even rivaling efforts launched by giants
like Google and Facebook.
Explanation:
The expression shows case of ontological metaphor. From the sentence above, the metaphorical expression is “Giants.” The expression shows case of metaphor by using noun Giants, and has literal meaning of an imaginary or mythical being of human form but superhuman size or an abnormally or extremely tall or large person, animal, or plant.63 Google is a popular search engine, more precisely an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, and software. Most of its profits are derived from AdWords, an online advertising service that places advertising near the list of search results.64 Faceb
