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1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the researcher provides the basic foundation of this
research which is divided in six sections. The first three sections are related to the
research namely research background, research problems and problem limitation.
The next two sections are related to the contribution of this research namely
research objectives and research benefits. The last section is related to the
variables in this research namely definition of terms.
1.1 Research Background
In the education field, students acquire most of the information from
what they have read. As a consequence, it requires the students to have the
skill to understand what they have read and to be sensitive and critical of
what have been presented in the text in order to acquire the precise
information. Hence, it is not a problem for those who have good skill in
reading; it is a problem for those who are not able to do it. The fact, as
stated by Grabe (2004), many students may not be used to reading texts that
need comprehension, synthesis and critical thinking.
Language elements in their nature are skills that require certain
abilities, but in their practical use one might need the skills to achieve a
certain purpose, in this case is acquiring the precise information from the
separately. According to Harmer (2007), there is some concern in separating
the skills, especially since they are seldom separated in the real life. He also
adds that the students cannot access meaning unless their brains are fully
engaged with the text they are interacting with. Reading is not only a matter
of understanding word per word presented in the text but also the
information and the message or issue brought by the author. Thus, the
ability to read a text is related to the ability to figure out how the writer
expresses the idea and to be able to figure out the logical order of the
writing itself.
Regarding that reason, one thing needs to be clear is the nature of
reading. Reading is not a passive skill but an active skill. Reading as an
active skill requires one to get closer to the text being read; interact with the
text and understand its characteristics. It also requires one talking to the text
as he or she creates the response to the text. Soliman (2012) proposes
reading as the most important academic skill which enables the students to
learn new information and find out the different perspectives and
interpretations. Thus, by acquiring the new information, different
perspectives, and interpretations, one has the chance to process the new
information, different perspectives and interpretations to be something
meaningful and beneficial for one and for others as he or she is sharing what
has been discovered. By sharing what he or she discovered, he or she has
the chance to share his or her opinion and position regarding the issue or
The phenomenon reveals that reading as an active skill is related to
writing as one of the productive skills. Reading and writing, as stated by Dr.
Joyce M. Morris, are forms of communication (as cited in Moyle, 1972). He
explains further by stating that learning to read is not only to understand the
language use in the text but also to understand the information provided.
The primary functions of reading and writing is on how to gain the
information and how to communicate the information to actualize one’s
abilities in reading and writing.
In response to the issue, the idea of combining the two skills seems to
be the most appropriate way of acquiring the abilities. It is appropriate in the
way to promote the real communication learning. Meaningful
communication, as described by Hinkel, is when people employ incremental
language skills not in isolation, but in tandem. The action of combining two
skills into one is called integrated skill (as cited in Harmer, 2007). The
combination of the skills is meant to get the connection of the skills to fulfil
a greater purpose of learning which is to be able to communicate what have
been gained and make use of what have been learned in the real life tasks.
In the English Language Education Study Programme Sanata Dharma
University (ELESP SDU), the programme of combining the skills has been
implemented since 2010 for the third semester students. For reading and
writing skills, the programme is called Critical Reading and Writing (CRW)
course. The programme is implemented for two semesters starting from the
The course, CRW 1 class is expected to give the students practice to write
responses critically based on the given texts or passages. The students are
trained to apply logical principles, careful standard of evidence and
reasoning to the analysis and discussion of claims, beliefs and issues. On the
other hand, CRW 2 class is expected to facilitate the students to have an
access to a large amount of reading where the students acquire the
information. Thus, it enables the students to enhance the progress of their
knowledge and the development of their critical reading and writing skills.
The idea of ideal implementation of integrated-skills course is to be
able to give a place to actualize or to implement the real concept of how to
relate and connect reading and writing. The implementation of
integrated-skills course is employed in order to perform the real communication in a
language learning context. Therefore, the researcher is interested in
conducting the research on this topic to have an in depth investigation on
how actually the implementation of critical review and the relation of the
implementation to advanced level of readers as seen in critical reading and
writing.
The most important problem is on the criteria of being critical readers
and critical writers. However, many people never talk of how the process of
being critical is. Therefore, whether the implementation of critical reading
and writing by synthesizing the information from reading to perform a good
writing is the appropriate way, and whether by connecting the topic and the
integrated-skills course brings the consequences that the implementation of
tasks and stages which can help students to be critical readers and writers is
important.
Critical review as proposed by Arnaudet and Barrett (1984) is a
writing task of reviewing an article that calls for four sections of format;
introduction, summary, critique, and conclusion. This task is a complex task
which requires several processes of critical reading and critical writing, such
as the abilities to analyze a text as to the author’s purpose, main idea or
thesis, and organizational techniques, as well as proficiency at summarizing.
In general, the way readers should do the critical review of an article is the
same as the way readers usually should do the review of an article or a book
in which the readers should identify the basic information of it, the summary
and the conclusion. The difference is that in a critical review, the review
itself should be more complex where the readers have the opportunity to
give a precise critique; to show their position and to establish their critical
point of view. Therefore, the core of critical review is on the critique. The
readers, as they are encouraged to provide a critique, should possess critical
reading, critical thinking and critical writing abilities towards what they
have read.
This research is intended to investigate two big points. First, on how
critical review in Critical Reading and Writing class 1 (CRW 1) is
implemented. Second, on what the students and lecturer think about the
would like to figure out whether the implementation of critical review in
CRW 1 class can bring the students to achieve critical reading and writing
skills.
Moreover, through this research, the researcher would like to find out
whether critical review can be the bridge for students to achieve higher level
of reading; the advanced level of readers. In this research, the researcher
also would like to figure out the students’ and lecturer’s opinions towards
the implementation of critical review in their class. Then, the researcher
would like to find out what is or are the impact(s) that might be resulted by
the implementation.
This research is conducted based on several reasons. First, reading
does not only to know the language but also the message presented by the
author. At the same point, the readers are encouraged to possess critical
reading and critical thinking on reading. Second, reading as an active skill
and writing as a productive skill encourage the students to be able to present
what they have gained and to show their positions towards the issue
presented.
1.2 Research Problems
In this research, the researcher proposes two research problems
regarding the issue and topic discussed. The research problems formulated
Thus, the research problems would be the guidelines on the process in
conducting and reporting the research. The research problems are:
1. How is the implementation of critical review in CRW 1 class?
2. What do the students and lecturer think about the implementation of
critical review on reading?
1.3 Problem Limitation
The research is limited to a critical review which in this research is
seen as the process of critical reading, critical thinking and critical writing
not on examination of its product. The limitation is also used for the further
implication, advanced level of readers which categorized as those who
possess critical thinking and reflective mind. In order to focus on the
research, the researcher also limited the subject to CRW 1 students from
batch 2011 ELESP SDU. Further elaboration of this point is elaborated in
Chapter III.
1.4 Research Objectives
Based on the research problems, there are two research objectives
intend to be achieved by the researcher. First is to figure out how the critical
review in CRW 1 class is implemented. This would expose and explore the
tasks and stages implemented in CRW 1 class. Second is to figure out what
on reading. This would also expose and explore their opinions towards the
implementation of critical review in their CRW 1 class.
1.5 Research Benefits
This research on the implementation of critical review in CRW 1 class
as a bridge to achieve advanced level of readers is expected to bring benefits
for four parties in the education field; the researcher herself, students who
are undertaking CRW 1 course, lecturers who is implementing this critical
review on the reading class and educators or researchers who are interested
in this topic.
The researcher, as a language learner, concerns on the educational
issues especially on language teaching. The benefit of this research for the
researcher is the chance to explore more the phenomenon happened. As this
research is focusing on the skill building (critical reading and writing), the
researcher has the opportunity to explore the phenomenon happened based
on the existing theories. This research is expected to be able to present better
understanding of how the phenomenon happened.
Then, the students who are undertaking CRW 1 course also need to
find out the task to develop their abilities in order to be critical. This
research is expected to help the students to have better understanding of how
to be critical in reading and writing. This research, especially for the
respondents, is giving them opportunities to share what they understand and
For the lecturers who are implementing the critical review on the
reading class, this research provides a discussion about how critical readers
and critical writers should be when they are dealing with the texts. This
research encourages the lecturer to reflect the implementation of critical
review that he or she implemented in class to the theories or logic presented
in this research to enrich his or her knowledge of appropriate tasks and
stages. Then, the reflection can be used to modify the tasks and stages that
he or she implemented.
For educators or researchers who are interested in this topic, this
research could be one of the references they need to enrich their
understanding on a critical review. This research is conducted to present
how critical review in one of the EFL (English as foreign language) classes
as a bridge to advanced level of readers is implemented. By reading this
research, the educators or researchers could share their ideas based on their
experience on the same topic or they could evaluate this research according
to their needs. Overall, this research is dedicated to those who are studying
and teaching at English language education and interested in this topic.
1.6 Definition of Terms
There are some terms used in this research. In order to make this
research clear to the readers, the researcher provides some definitions of
discussion about some terms used in this research so that misinterpretation
could be avoided.
1.6.1 Critical Review
Critical review is a writing task that calls for four sections of format;
introduction, summary, critique and conclusion. Critical review is a writing
task of reviewing an article with critique as the core of the review presented
(Arnaudet and Barrett, 1984). In this research, the focus of critical review is
on the processes of being able to create a critique after reading the text. The
critique and other aspects in critical review are elaborated in the teaching
process in Critical Reading and Writing 1 class (CRW 1 class). This
implementation of critical review with critique as the core is explored
through the exploration of some sections in CRW 1 class.
1.6.2 Critical Reading and Writing 1 Class
Critical Reading and Writing 1 class is an integrated-skills course of
reading and writing skills which is offered on the third semester in ELESP
(English Language Education Study Programme) Sanata Dharma University
(SDU). According to the course description, this course is designed to give
students practice to write responses critically based on the given texts or
passages. The texts are related to argumentative, persuasive and expository
genre. They are trained to apply logical principles, careful standard of
issues (the syllabus of Critical Reading and Writing 1). In this research, the
researcher focuses on the process of how this critical reading and writing
conducted in a class to see the processes developed to be able to promote the
critical readers and writers and their relations to critical review.
1.6.3 Critical Reading
Critical reading lies in assessing the extent to which authors provided
adequate justification for the claims they make (Wallace & Wray, 2011).
The reader rereads a text to identify patterns of elements -- information,
values, assumptions, and language usage—throughout the discussion. These
elements are tied together in an interpretation, an assertion of an underlying
meaning of the text as a whole (Kurland, 2000). In this research, the
researcher focuses on critical reading as the process to figure out how the
ideas are argued including the analysis of the elements and ideas presented,
the evaluation of the ideas, and the evidences provided in the text. This
critical reading as a process to read critically the text without accepting
easily all the information presented is seen through stages of reading;
pre-reading, interpretive pre-reading, critical reading and post reading. Reading is
the first skill that needs to be acquired before trying to produce the written
text because the information written in a writing mostly derived from what
has been read. This critical reading part would play the first step in
1.6.4 Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is involving and along with imagination, a twofold
activity; analysis which is separating the parts of the problem, trying to see
how things fit together, and evaluation which is judging the merit of the
assumptions and the weight of the evidence in their favor (Barnet and
Bedau, 1999). In this research, critical thinking is seen as a result of
acquiring the critical reading skill. Critical thinking is a skill that enables the
readers to identify the subject matter in a bigger and wider scope for the new
perspective or paradigm by evaluating and interpreting the ideas presented.
Therefore, critical thinking is the second step in acquiring and developing
the critical ability by creating a response to the text.
1.6.5 Critical Writing
Critical writing lies in convincing the reader to accept the claims
(Wallace & Wray, 2011). In this research, critical writing is explored and
elaborated as the final step of developing the critical ability. It requires one
to produce the critique and critical writing. As the final step, critical writing
is a place for one to show what he or she gained after analyzing, evaluating
and interpreting the text. This critical writing is seen through the process of
producing the writing from three stages; the post reading, critical thinking,
1.6.6 Advanced Level of Readers
Advanced level of readers is readers’ reading level in which the
readers possess critical thinking and reflective mind on what they have read
as stated by Rosales, Jiminez, Haydee, and Soraya (2010). In this research,
advanced level of readers is defined as the reading level where the readers
applied analysis and evaluation of their readings and also applied the
reflective mind towards what happened on their surroundings. Advanced
level of readers is analyzed and evaluated as further implication of being
critical both in reading and writing. The researcher believed that the ability
of being critical towards some issues and cases would not stop on just
judging, responding or evaluating them critically. It has a bigger purpose,
implication and contribution to the future. Therefore, advanced level of
readers is the further implication after implementing critical review in
critical reading and writing. The relation and elaboration of them are
14 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the researcher provides the review of the theories employed.
The theoretical description serves as the foundation of the research conducted by
the researcher. The researcher also provides the theoretical framework serving as
the logical link of the primary theories employed by the researcher to give the
logical order of the research.
2.1 Theoretical Description
The theoretical description consists of theories employed as the foundation
of this research. Perception as one of the primary theories employed in this
research is the first point explored in the theoretical description. Next, the theory
of critical review as the focus of this research is described in two sections; the
principles and the aspects of critical review. After that, the researcher provides the
theoretical description on the implementation of integrated-skills approach
providing the further explanation on the integration and the elaboration on the
relation between critical reading and critical writing. Next, the theoretical
description focuses on the exploration of the advanced level of readers to give an
in depth elaboration on the nature of advanced level of readers.
2.1.1 Perception
Perception is a common thing in almost all levels of human life. Since kids,
people have tried to see things and their surroundings with their own way of
seeing something. Adults employ perception in most of their relations and
activities every day.
2.1.1.1 Nature of Perception
The phenomenon, on how people usually create perception in their daily life
shows that it is formed since long time ago. It happened because it is the nature of
a human. Russell (1997) proposes perception as an activity which is dealing with
sensory core and stimulus.
The role of sensory core is crucial in creating perception (visual perception).
Hatfield and Epstein (1979) stated in their book “Early Modern Perceptual
Theory” that visual perception has two conscious states; mental representation of
the two-dimensional retinal image and our experience of the “visual world” of the
object distributed in depth. What is taken by our sensory core then should be
correlated to our mental representation which creates the first conscious state.
After that, the percipient will take his experience to correlate it to the mental
representation he got before.
That is how people start to respond and give opinion about what they see,
what they hear, what they feel and what they think. People live their own way of
many activities in their daily life. Thus, people are get used to make or create
perception in their daily life.
Theoretically, Russell (1997) states that in order to describe perception, one
needs to know the theory of knowledge. There are two theories of knowledge; one
that focuses on cognition and one that focuses on perceiving. Russell in his book
“An inquiry into meaning and truth” (1997) focuses his explanation on perceiving.
Russell (1997) defines perceiving as to accept the world appears as it is
without being critical to it. From the definition, it emphasizes that perceiving is
viewed with a view to determine whether it is cognition or not. If it is not, how it
is related to the empirical knowledge of matters of fact will be explored. In his
book, the empirical knowledge of the matters of fact is the prior knowledge or
prior experience that one had before he or she perceived something new.
This idea leads to another term proposed by Russell (1997) that is
perceptive experience. Perceptive experience, as we perceive something, is the
process where we relate our knowledge of experience in the past and our
knowledge of the future and the unexpected past or present. Then, One correlates
what he or she perceived to the past experience and future prediction. This
correlation is bridging one to a new perception of the thing he or she perceived.
Thus, the logical relation of empirical knowledge we have is stated clearly
through this process to discover the new perception of something.
On the other hand, the second theory of knowledge focuses on cognition.
Kreitner and Kinicki (2008) state that perception is a cognitive process enabling
introduced by four-stage information-processing model; selective
attention/comprehension, encoding and simplification, storage and retention, and
retrieval and response. The first three stages are to describe how specific
information and environmental stimuli are observed and stored in the memory.
The fourth stage is to describe how mental representations turn into real world
judgments and decisions. The four-stage information-processing sequence which
is proposed by Kreitner and Kinicki (2008) is described further as follows.
1. Selective attention/comprehension
Attention, according to Kreitner and Kinicki (2008), is the process of
becoming consciously aware of something or someone. Attention can be
focused on information either from the environment or from the memory.
In the relation to the stimuli, Kreitner and Kinicki stated that people tend
to pay attention to salient stimuli. Something is salient when it stands out
from its context. People have tendency to pay more attention to negative
than positive information which leads to a negativity bias.
2. Encoding and simplification
Encoding as proposed by Kreitner and Kinicki (2008) is where the raw
information is interpreted or translated into mental representations. In
order to accomplish this, perceivers assign pieces of information to
cognitive categories. Category is a number of objects that are considered
equivalent. For categories of people, events, and objects, it is interpreted
and evaluated by comparing their characteristics to information contained
of a particular event or type of stimulus. Cognitive-category as stated
previously is important to make the schemata meaningful, in the relation
to encoding where the environment is being interpreted and evaluated.
The interpretations and evaluations might be vary according to the four
key reasons; first is people possess different information in the schemata
used for interpretation, second is our moods and emotions influence our
focus of attention and evaluations of others, third is people tend to apply
recently used cognitive categories during encoding, and fourth is
individual differences influence encoding.
3. Storage and retention
This stage involves storage of information in a long-term memory. This
long-term memory involves event memory which contains category of
event, semantic memory which contains category of semantic materials,
and person memory which contains category of people. Event memory is
composed of categories containing information about both specific and
general events. Semantic memory refers to general knowledge of the
world. Person memory contains information on a single individual or
groups of people.
4. Retrieval and response
This stage shows that people retrieve information from the memory when
they make judgments and decisions. Thus, judgments and decisions are
categorical information stored in a long-term memory or on retrieving a
summary judgment that was already made.
2.1.2 Critical Review
In the theoretical description of critical review, there are two main sections.
First, the principles of critical review covering three main principles of critical
review. Second, the aspects of critical review covering the main elements.
2.1.2.1 Principles of Critical Review
In the academic field, especially English language, the ability to have a
deeper understanding and critical way of thinking in both reading and writing is
essential. The students are required to have the ability to perform critical review
as they read and write an article. Critical review, as one of tasks that one needs to
be performed in the academic reading, calls for a format; introduction, summary,
critique and conclusion. Critical review is a complex task which demanding
proficiency in all skills areas. That is why critical review is a task which is
demanding several processes, such as analysis on the text as to the author’s
purpose, main idea or thesis, and organizational techniques, as well as proficiency
at summarizing.
Critical review performs a set of tasks that emphasize the process of
employing all skills areas. Arnaudet and Barrett (1984) believe the most important
part of critical review is the critique. Arnaudet and Barrett (1984) state that in
know enough about the content of the article so that they can understand the
comments without actually having to read the article and to form his or her own
impression as to value the article and to present the subjective impression to the
readers clearly and honestly.
In the relation to what is a critical review, Arnaudet and Barrett (1984) state
that there is no one correct way of reviewing an article in which they only suggest
the basic aspects for reviewing critically. Introduction, summary and critique are
obligatory in reviewing an article whereas conclusion may not be necessary
depending on what has been said in the review and how those comments are
organized. Both of them agree that in reviewing an article, the most important part
is the critique. Critique as the core of critical review is a bridge to figure out what
principles prop up the idea of critical review itself.
There are three principles of critical review. First, critical review aims to
elicit a personal comment on a topic discussed. Second, in order to make the
personal comments, one is encouraged to analyze and evaluate the content of the
article. Third, unlike a pure summary, critical review by its very nature is
subjective in which one must make judgment and comment on the article being
reviewed.
2.1.2.2 Aspects in Critical Review
Based on the nature of critical review proposed by Arnaudet and Barrett
(1984) previously, there are four big aspects in a critical review; introduction,
review is not exactly covering the four aspects proposed. There are some points or
ideas from the aspects that are implemented. The elaboration of the idea of each
aspect is presented as follows.
Introduction as the first aspect in critical review is a common aspect that can
be found in almost all English writings. According to Arnaudet and Barrett
(1984), introduction covers the basic information of an article yet it is an essential
type of information, such as establishing the context, clarification of the subject as
the further focus, establishing a critical point of view as the thesis, textual
coherence through concessive contrast and reporting verbs. In establishing the
context, one needs to mention the title and the author linked to some elegant
techniques of shared knowledge, a rhetorical question, background information or
a quotation. In clarification of the subject as the further focus, one needs to
directly provide the subject of the article or discussion and also states or figures
out the author’s purpose in writing the article. In establishing a critical point of
view as the thesis, one needs to provide overall impression of the article. As it is
an overall impression, one needs to state in brief the impression and the state
whether he or she agrees on the ideas or not but without further elaboration on the
reason and analysis of the idea. This part is only for giving some clues that one is
expressing either approval or disapproval towards the ideas presented. In
presenting textual coherence through concessive contrast, one will mention both
positive and negative points of the ideas presented. This way of contrasting ideas
is called concession. Concession as the contrasting of ideas is trying to contrast
verbs are verbs used to restate someone else’s ideas. Arnaudet and Barrett (1984)
propose four categories of reporting verbs, such as neutral verbs of restatements,
verbs restatements with a + or—connotation, verbs of opinion and verbs of
uncertainty.
Summary is the second aspect in critical review. According to Arnaudet and
Barrett (1984), summary is the place where one needs to summarize the contents
of the articles, such as the thesis or controlling idea, all important thoughts,
relationships and examples which seem particularly important to one. It means in
summary one is trying to put all the important information he gained from reading
in order to make a precise collection of ideas and elaboration of the topic
discussed.
Critique is the third aspect in critical review. According to Arnaudet and
Barrett (1984), giving a personal comment is the aim of critical review. This part
focuses on a personal judgment. Critique in critical review has a special function
to elaborate and specifically support one’s judgments on the introduction part. In
making the personal judgments, there are several criteria which should be
considered; the important of the subject matter, the timelines of the article, the
length of the article, the objectivity of the writer, the interpretation of the data, the
thoroughness of treatment of the subject matter, the practicality of the suggestions,
and the personal interest in the subject. They also stated that one should not
necessarily pick all the criteria presented. Two or three criteria chosen to be
Conclusion is the last aspect in a critical review. This part is an optional
part. It is optional in which if the review presented is already specific, the
conclusion is not an important part. However, if the review presented is general to
the topic discussed, the conclusion is needed.
2.1.3 The implementation of integrated-skills approach
Theoretical description on integrated-skills approach focuses on the
discussion on how to integrate two or more different skills in teaching. This
theoretical description also emphasizes the connection between the skills.
Therefore, the integration of skills is meant to achieve a bigger scope of learning.
2.1.3.1 Integrating skills
Harmer (2007) believes that the acquiring language for the purpose of
communication is using skills without isolation. This shows that Harmer is an
expert who supports the idea of integrated-skills learning. Learning skills without
isolation mean applying no separation of skills in learning a language. One can
learn two or more skills in a time. This is important as he emphasizes that in order
to perform a real life task meaningfully by using a language people need more
than one skill to comprehend to perform better. There are several ways to
integrate skills in learning a language. Harmer (2007) proposes some ways that
can be used to combine skills in integrated-skills course.
The first combination is speaking as preparation and stimulus. Speaking
Teacher often asks students to discuss a topic as a way of activating their
schemata or engaging them in a topic that they are going to read or hear about.
The second combination is texts as models. Students are greatly helped by
being exposed to examples of writing or speaking which shows certain
conventions for them to draw upon. One of the best ways to encourage the
students to write certain kinds of report, for example, is by showing them some
actual reports. The teacher can help them to analyze the structure and style. Then,
when getting the students to give spoken directions, they will get the benefit from
hearing other people doing it first.
The third combination is texts as preparation and stimulus. Teacher often
uses written or spoken texts to stimulate students into some other kinds of works.
A controversial reading passage may be the springboard for discussion or for a
written form. Listening to a recording in which a speaker tells a dramatic story
may provide a necessary stimulus for students to tell their own stories, or may be
the basis for their written narrative.
The fourth combination is integrated tasks. Almost any speaking activity is
bound to involve listening, but sometimes when students are involved in some
kinds of cooperative writing, there will be speaking, listening, writing and reading
almost simultaneously. Teacher frequently asks students to listen to something
and take a message or note. Teacher also might ask them to prepare a spoken
summary of something they have read, or read information on the internet as
2.1.3.2 Critical Reading and Writing
Theoretical description on critical reading and writing focuses the
discussion on the exploration and elaboration of critical reading and critical
writing. This theoretical description also emphasizes the nature of critical reading
and critical writing. Then, the nature of critical reading and critical writing is
explored. The principles of teaching in critical reading and critical writing are
elaborated. Therefore, the exploration and elaboration of critical reading and
critical writing are meant to figure out the whole picture of critical reading and
critical writing.
2.1.3.2.1 Nature of Critical Reading
Reading is not only to know the language or words written in the text but
also to perform an active process in which the readers need to interact with the
text and finally get the message, perspective and new paradigm. According to
Wallace and Wray (2011), the skill of critical reading lies in assessing the extent
to which the authors have provided adequate justification for the claims they
make. This means critical reading is encouraging the students to examine
thoroughly the points presented by the author. This, they emphasize that the
assessment depends partly on what the authors have communicated and partly on
other relevant knowledge, experience and inference that the readers are able to
bring into the frame. This understanding brings the readers to the truth that
reading is interaction between the reader and the text, one’s prior knowledge and
being able to read critically ends up as the reader’s judgment on the text itself.
According to Knott (n.d.), critical reading is to make a judgment on how a text is
argued. The judgment on how the text is argued covers how the author sets the
claim, supporting details, explanation, elaboration and example or evidence. This
also means that critical reading is to make a judgment on how the author puts
things together into one complete argument about the subject matter. This, she
emphasizes that when one is critically reading a text then he or she is looking for
ways of thinking about the subject matter. Thus, the aim of critical reading is not
only to discover the new information provided in the text but also to figure out
how the text works and how the arguments on the text support the topic of the
text. From the points explained, Knott (n.d.) state that there are several
characteristics of critical reading; central claims or purposes, context, kinds of
reasoning, evidence and evaluation. The characteristics are explained in the
following.
The nature of critical reading is explained through the explanation of five
characteristics. The first characteristic is on the point of the goal of critical reading
which focuses on the claims presented. In central claims or purposes, critical
reading attempts to identify and access how these central claims are developed or
argued. The second characteristic is on the point of the context brought by the
text. In the context, critical reading begins with making a judgment about the
context on what kind of audience is the text written for, who is it in the dialogue
with and what historical context is the writing. The third characteristic is on the
reasoning the text employed regarding what context is defined or used, whether a
text appeal of the theory or theories, then how the theory or theories is(are) used
to organize and interpret the data. The readers also can examine the organization
of the text and how the author analyzed the materials or elements. The fourth
characteristic is on the point of evidence provided by the author. In evidence,
critical reading examines the evidence (supporting facts or examples) that the text
presented. Then, the readers can consider the kind of evidence used, and how the
evidence is used to develop the arguments and its controlling claims or concepts.
The last characteristic is on the point of evaluation of the text. In evaluation,
critical reading also may involve evaluation of the weaknesses and strengths of
the text. This means critical reading uses analysis as a bridge to evaluate the
points presented in the text.
2.1.3.2.2 Principles of Teaching Critical Reading
In teaching critical reading, RMIT University states that there are at least
three ways: comprehension, analysis and interpretation. In reading with
comprehension, one is reading to find out what the text says or the main ideas of
the text. In reading with analysis, one is reading to find out what the text does or
how is the information presented. In reading with interpretation, one is reading to
find out what the text means in a broader context or what the text is saying.
Those ways of reading in their relation to each other enable the students to
be critical of what they have read not only to accept all the information presented.
understand what the text is saying. Then, after understanding the text, they are
encouraged to be able to understand whether the text is presenting good
organization of ideas, whether the supporting details are related to the main ideas
presented, and whether the arguments are supporting each other to build the
subject matter. Next, the students are also encouraged to be able to analyze the
message brought by the author on a larger scope by connecting it to their lives,
their surrounding and their past experience.
According to Wheeler (2012) these ways of reading are developed into
several stages of reading techniques in the implementation; pre-reading,
interpretive reading and critical reading. In pre-reading, there are activities of
preliminary examination, clarification of the text, and skeleton examination.
These activities are implemented in some reading teaching techniques. According
to Pardede (2006), out of those most important activities in pre-reading, there are
previewing, skimming, and prediction about the text. Previewing, according to
Pardede (2006), is the activity where students look at the titles, headings, and
pictures and read the first few paragraphs and last paragraphs. From the
description of the activities, the aim of this previewing is to encourage the
students to get used to the text, the subjects, and the topic discussed before
reading the whole text.
Skimming, according to Raygor and Raygor (1985) is different from normal
reading in which not all materials are read because the aim is to get the general
information of the text. From the definition of skimming, the researcher gained
on the text by reading several parts of the text with the aim to generally describe
what the text is about before reading the whole text.
Prediction, according to Smith, is the prior elimination of unlikely
alternatives in which he proposes that prediction is the questions the readers ask
the world (as cited in Pardede, 2006). Then, comprehension is receiving the
answer. The definition given explained that when readers made prior questions
towards the text, it means that the readers set some prior goals to be answered by
the text itself based on the previewing and skimming activities.
In the interpretive reading, there are activities of finding important words,
paraphrasing, summarizing, and understanding parts you do not understand.
According to Kurland (2000), this stage of reading is also called pre-critical
reading in which while reading one concerns on recognizing what the text says
about the topic. The goal of it as stated by Kurland (2000) is to make sense of
presentation as a sequence of thoughts, to understand the information, ideas, and
opinions stated within the text from the sentence to sentence and paragraph to
paragraph. However, in order to differentiate this stage from the critical reading
stage, Kurland (2000) states that pre-critical reading only recognizes what the text
says but not how the text portrays the subject matter.
In the critical reading, there are activities, such as asking initial questions,
marking the notes to analyze the elements of the text, and evaluating the ideas and
interpret the text. Knott (n.d.) states that to read critically is to make a judgment
on how a text is argued. That is why she believed that critical reading is seen as
of thinking, one needs to really understand how the elements of the text
constructed and related to each other to form a complete or a whole ideas of the
subject matter by analyzing the text or breaking the elements, evaluating the text
or seeing the strengths, and weaknesses and interpreting the text or grabbing the
message.
2.1.3.2.3 Nature of Critical Writing
Writing in English as foreign language (EFL) classes might be a big
challenge in which one needs to have enough knowledge on a certain topic that he
or she is going to write in order to be able to produce a good and precise writing.
This knowledge and ability to produce a precise writing should be supported by
mastering the ability of proficient English reading and writing. The fact that
English mastery and knowledge should support one skill and another might be
another challenge encountered by most of EFL students. On the other hand,
writing as a media to deliver critique or one’s critical point of view on something
or things that has been read might be another challenge. The fact is to produce a
precise English writing giving a big challenge to EFL students. Then, the ability
to criticize the writing might be another higher level of task that should be
performed.
As stated by Gorrell (n.d.), critical writing or critical response to other’s
works is summarizing main ideas and respond to the main ideas as the readers
synthesize what they have read. Gorrell (n.d.) emphasizes that there are two things
response. The response that Gorrell (n.d.) emphasizes is not an ordinary response.
It is response that one performs while one is synthesizing or extracting the
information. The information he or she gained from reading the articles is applied
to identify the connections in order to be able to perform a powerful idea or
argument about the subject matter. On the other hand, Wallace and Wray (2011)
propose that the skill of self-critical writing lies in convincing your readers to
accept the claims. The act of convincing the readers on the critical writing
provided can be conducted by presenting clear position, strong claims, deeper
elaboration, and relevant evidence. The claims presented should be powerful and
logical. Wallace and Wray (2011) emphasize that this can be achieved through
effective communication of adequate reasons and evidence. It means a good
reasoning is a powerful way to build critical writing, and evidence is essential.
From the points proposed by Gorrell (n.d.), there are two natures of a
critical writing; the ability to provide the summary of the main ideas and the
ability to respond to the main ideas presented. On the other hand, Kurland (2010)
states in order to write better, one needs to read better. Regarding the ability to
respond to the main ideas, he emphasized that one’s successful in writing
critically should be based on one’s ability to read critically as one stores what he
or she read critically in mind and writes it down in form of a response.
This critical writing ability, according to Wallace and Wray (2006), is a
matter of providing the summary of the main issues or problems raised by the
author. The main ideas are important but the main issues cannot be left behind
of the text presented. On the other hand, Clanchy and Ballard (1991) support
Gorrell’s ideas that one needs to create notes on the ideas to be able to write a
summary of the text by identifying its aims and main ideas. Clanchy and Ballard
(1991) also propose that in order to write critically, one needs to analyze the text.
The analyzing point needs to be produced by analyzing the key content of the
variables in the text.
From the points presented by experts above, there are some points building
the nature of critical writing. The first is the summary of main ideas and issues.
The second is the response to the main ideas or issues by analyzing the content or
variables and writing critically by reading critically the text. The third is in
addition to the point of critical reading as the base of this critical writing, Fisher
(2001) state that an evaluation is a way to find out whether the ideas presented is
worthy or not or right or wrong.
2.1.3.2.4 Principles of Teaching Critical Writing
Based on the nature presented by some experts, there are some principles
underlying how to teach critical writing. According to Gorrell (n.d.), the principles
are:
1. Post reading
After reading a text, Gorrell (n.d.) believe that the first mission to be
accomplished is summary on the ideas presented. It can be developed by
asking some questions:
b. How is the text organized?
c. What evidence or support does the author gives?
d. What is the primary purpose of the text?
This principle is supported by Clanchy and Ballard (1991). They state
that after reading the text, one might create the mind map of the ideas
presented then use the mind map and other notes from the analysis of the text
to make a summary of the text.
2. Critical Thinking
After being able to create the summary of the text, one should be able
to think critically on what is presented by the author as a whole. This stage
requires the analysis on the text presented. According to Gorrell (n.d.),
analysis towards the text is including the ability to produce the interpretation
of the text and evaluation of the text. The ability to evaluate and interpret
the text can be developed by trying to answers some of these questions:
a. Does the work achieve its purpose? Fully or only partially?
b. Was the purpose worthwhile to begin with? Or was it too limited,
trivial, broad, theoretical, etc.?
c. Is any of the evidence weak or insufficient? In what way? Conversely,
is the evidence/support particularly effective or strong?
d. Can I supply further explanation to clarify or support any of the main
points, ideas, and arguments?
f. Was there any area where the author offered too much or too little
information?
g. Is the organization of the work an important factor? Does its
organization help me understand it; hinder my understanding, or
neither?
h. Is anything about the language or style noteworthy?
Critical thinking as seen through the analysis of the text is a way to
develop critical thinking towards the issue or the subject matter. This idea is
supported by Fisher (2001) who states that an evaluation is a skillful activity
which requires intellectual standards such as clarity, relevance, adequacy,
coherence, and so on. Then, the results are on the decision whether to accept
or to believe what is stated on the text.
3. Critical Writing
According to Gorrell (n.d.), critical writing does not require the length
of the essay that you are going to write nor the breadth. In critical writing
there are several basic elements that need to be considered; introduction,
body, summary, analysis and evaluation to the evidence, response,
conclusion, and documentation.
In implementing the principles of critical writing in a class, Gorrell
(n.d.) stated that there is no strict guideline on it. One may vary it by writing
all the summary paragraphs first, and followed by analysis portion; alternate
between summary and analysis paragraphs so that each paragraph of a
combining a summary and critique of each idea within each paragraph of the
body.
2.1.3.3 CRW in ELESP
Theoretical description on CRW (Critical Reading and Writing) in ELESP
(English Language Education Study Programme) focuses on the further
explanation on CRW designed in ELESP Sanata Dharma University. This
explanation aims to specify CRW discussed in this research. The short
explanation on CRW in ELESP is presented in the following.
In ELESP, reading and writing are considered an ongoing process of
building students’ ability to transfer their knowledge and ideas gained from the
text into their own written text. There are Basic Reading 1 & 2, Basic Writing and
Paragraph Writing, CRW 1 & 2, Academic Essay Writing, Thesis Writing and
Thesis. Those courses, with CRW 1 & 2 in the middle of the process, are
supporting each other to prepare the students to be able to write their thesis. This
means each course is important and should be taken by its order.
According to Panduan Akademik 2012, Critical Reading and Writing 1 is
designed to give the students practice to write responses critically based on the
given texts or passages. The texts are related to argumentative, persuasive and
expository genre. They are trained to apply logical principles, careful standard of
evidence and reasoning to the analysis and discussion of claims, beliefs and
In a further explanation, according to Panduan Akademik 2012, at the end of
the programme, students are able to comprehend the passage given and write their
responses critically. CRW 1 course is offered in Semester 3. Moreover, in
Panduan Akademik 2012, to be eligible to take this course, students need to pass
Basic Reading 1 & 2, Basic Writing, and Paragraph Writing.
2.1.4 Advanced Level of Reader
In this theoretical description, the elaboration focuses on two main points;
the nature of advanced level of readers and the principles of critical thinking. The
exploration on the nature of advanced level of readers will describe the
characteristics of advanced level of readers in depth. The principles of critical
thinking will explain the ideas building the critical thinking itself.
2.1.4.1 Nature of Advanced Level of Readers
Advanced readers, according to Catron and Wingenbach, are those who
automatically integrate prior knowledge and experience into their reading, utilize
higher order of thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, and
communicate these ideas (as cited in Richards, 2001). In their ideas, Catron and
Wingenbach try to discuss advanced level of readers as those who are able to
integrate their prior knowledge and experience and utilize of their higher order
thinking level skills (as cited in Richards, 2001).
Rosales et al. (2010) make clear of the ideas presented by Catron and
reading and critical thinking will more likely be open-minded towards new ideas
and perspectives, which foster a continued intellectual and professional growth.
Rosales et al. (2010) also state that extensive reading promotes the development
of critical thinking. Therefore, they add that students have the chance to develop
the critical thinking skills if in their academic reading and writing, they are
provided with activities or techniques that employed the interrelated cooperation
between the critical reading and critical thinking skills.
Rosales et al. (2010) also provide the explanation of how the ideas of
reflective mind and critical thinking fit the criteria of advanced level of readers
proposed by Catron and Wingenbach. They state that the reflective minded
students can decide what information is important to be used to face the issues
that concern them. At the same time, they will be more aware of collecting the
opinions from the trustworthy sources. Moreover, they also propose that a reader
with a reflective mind has four characteristics. First, he or she is purposeful and he
or she adjusts the extensive reading to the definite goals to be achieved in order to
be successful in the academic field. Second, the reader has the ability to integrate
ideas and information, which implies that he or she joins the ideas and obtains the
ideas from the text to the articles she or he has already had. Third, a reader with a
reflective mind is critical in the sense that she or he is looking for clarity,
precision, relevance, logic significance, and fairness. Fourth or the last
characteristic is for the reader to be open to the new perspectives in order to
