A SYN
ON
Present
ENGL DE
SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC STUDY
ON LYRICS IN CHILDREN SONGS
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS sented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement
for the Degree ofSarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
CINDY ABRAM Student Number: 054214065
GLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME EPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA 2009
DY
nts
iii
By
CINDY ABRAM Student Number: 054214065
Defended before the Board of Examiners on October 31, 2009
and Declared Acceptable
BOARD OF EXAMINERS
Name Signature
Chairman : Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd, M.A. _________________
Secretary : _________________
Member 1 : _________________
Member 2 : Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd, M.A. _________________ Member 3 : Anna Fitriati, S.pd., M.Hum. _________________
Yogyakarta, October 31, 2009 Faculty of Letters Sanata Dharma University
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Above all, the writer gives highest gratitude toJesus Christ, my Almighty God, my Savior, my Comforter, and my Shelter. Thank You, Jesus, for giving me this opportunity and for guiding me from the beginning until the end of this study. I love You, Jesus.
Moreover, the writer will not be able to complete this study without help and encouragement from these personages.
To my Papa, Simon Hariyono, thank you for always encouraging me not to give up on conditions and always surrender all to Jesus. To my Mama, Evangeline Soriton, thank you for giving me so much love and for ‘educating’ me so that I am who I am today. Nothing compares to your love, Pap and Mam. To my Oma, Pdt. Lies Soritonand my ‘big’ family, thank you so much for the support and for everything. To my ‘new’ family in Kediri, Bapak, Ibu Suwarno and Mbak dr. Yohana Kartikasari, thank you for always praying for me and supporting me. And in Surabaya, Prof. Dr. Agustinus Ngadiman, M. Pd., thank you for letting me disturb your afternoon and copying your books.
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of my friends of “Angkatan 2005”, especially the team of “Wine in the Wilderness”, thank you for the support, guys. And to all the crews of “Grease”, thank you for the opportunity to get involved in the amusements.
To my pastors, Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Suwondo, thank you for the prayers and the preachings that give me the inspirations to survive. We can do all things through Jesus. Amen. To F4 Community of Youth Fellowship Hagios Family GPdI Sosrowijayan, Yogyakarta; Kak Olin, Bang Modz, Ko Ted, E-Youth, Xtine, Mar-Q, It-Ha, Funny, Obet, Lefran. Thank you, guys, for supporting me and praying for me. God bless you all. And to Melda, thank you for all the support and stories. Keep the fire in God, sister.
To my beloved, dr. Yohanes Sudarmanto, thank you for supporting me endlessly, encouraging me thoroughly, loving me in good times and bad times, and understanding me gently. I thank God whenever I remember you.
Last but never the least; to all people around me who gave more thoughts and awareness of life, I thank you.
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A. Background of the Study 1
B. Problem Formulation 4
C. Objectives of the Study 5
D. Definition of Terms 5
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW 7
A. Review of Related Theories 7
B. Theoretical Framework 19
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY 21
A. Object of the Study 21
B. Approach of the Study 21
C. Method of the Study 22
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS 24
A. The syntactic categories of the sentences 24 B. The sentence structures in the lyrics of the children songs 29 C. The semantic relationships among the sentences in the lyrics 37
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION 49
BIBLIOGRAPHY 52
APPENDICES 54
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x ABSTRACT
CINDY ABRAM. A Syntactic and Semantic Study on Lyrics in Children Songs. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2009.
Children learn everything from their environment and their experience. Accordingly songs are often used to teach children about themselves, their actions, their surrounding objects, words, and language. Children songs are now used as media of education to educate children as they enjoy singing the children songs.
Children songs have certain forms that enable the children to memorize and understand what are mentioned in the songs. Hence, there are three problems that are discussed in this study. They are the types of sentence, the clause patterns, and the meaning relationships among sentences or lyrics in songs.
There are 10 children songs analyzed in this study. They are “Brother John”, “Eensy Weensy Spider”, “Head and Shoulders”, “Hickory Dickory Dock”, “The Farmer in the Dell”, “The Hokey Pokey”, “Row Row Row Your Boat”, “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star”, “The Wheels on the Bus”, and “This Little Piggy”. They are observed to find the answers of the problem formulation.
xi Dharma, 2009.
Anak-anak mempelajari apa saja dari lingkungan dan pengalaman mereka. Oleh karena itu, nyanyian sering digunakan untuk mengajarkan kepada anak-anak tentang diri mereka, kegiatan mereka, benda-benda di sekeliling mereka, kata-kata, and bahasa. Nyanyian anak-anak digunakan sebagai sarana edukasi untuk mengajar anak-anak seiring mereka menikmati menyanyikan nyanyian anak-anak tersebut.
Nyanyian anak-anak memiliki bentuk yang khas yang memungkinkan anak-anak untuk mengingat dan mengerti apa yang disebutkan di dalam nyanyian tersebut. Oleh karena itu, ada tiga hal yang dibahas dalam studi ini. Ketiga hal tersebut adalah tipe dari kalimat, pola klausa, dan hubungan makna di antara kalimat dalam nyayian.
Ada sepuluh nyanyian yang digunakan dalam studi ini. Nyanyian tersebut adalah “Brother John”, “Eensy Weensy Spider”, “Head and Shoulders”, “Hickory Dickory Dock”, “The Farmer in the Dell”, “The Hokey Pokey”, “Row Row Row Your Boat”, “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star”, “The Wheels on the Bus”, and “This Little Piggy”. Kesepuluh nyanyian tersebut diteliti untuk menemukan jawaban dari rumusan masalah.
1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
In this first chapter, there are four subtitles. They are Background of the Study, Problem Formulation, Objectives of the Study, and Definition of Terms. In Background of the Study, the description of the study will be presented. The problems answered in Chapter 4 will be presented in Problem Formulation. Objectives of the Study are the part where the writer states the purposes of conducting the study. In Definition of Terms, some specific terms used in the title and in the Problem Formulation will be explained.
A. Background of the Study
Nowadays, songs are used not only for fun or entertainment, but also for learning or educating, especially for children. In kindergartens, preschools, or even elementary schools, children songs are used in the teaching-and-learning processes in the classes. The children songs used may help the children learning words of certain language. The children will understand and memorize them easier than if they have to memorize them sentence by sentence or word by word. By singing the words in the songs, the children will develop the knowledge of the language and add as many vocabularies as they can into their memory.
Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen and Spencer in Linguistics: an
linguistically important differences, and also how to produce them (Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen and Spencer, 2000: 105).” The children in the early ages are in the stage of trying to repeat the words they hear and gaining as many words as possible without knowing deeply what the meanings of the words are. More is also stated by Phillips that “it is almost true that language learners understand more than they can say, and when children learn their first language they respond to language long before they learn to speak (2003: 15).” Children are able to comprehend the language spoken by people around them although they still cannot articulate it.
Children have their own ways in learning words. One of the ways is by rhyming. Children make their own rhymes to words they have obtained.
Rhyme, of course, is the basis of classical European versification, but very small children are aware of rhymes and often play rhyming games with themselves in which they make up nonsense words to rhyme with words they know (Radford,et al, 2000: 130).
Rhyming is such a fun activity for the children. This activity can help them to learn something more easily. Hence, children can also learn things through songs.
Howle, in her article, states that although the children are still incapable of understanding the lyrics of songs they are hearing, it will be the basis for their upcoming language development (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1053/ is_n4_v18/ai_8001205).
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people’s life: mothers sing lullaby songs for their babies, kindergarten teachers teach songs to their students, people listen to songs on the radio, cassettes, etc (2000: 3).” This is supported by Phillips inYoung Learners that says “music and rhythm make it much easier to imitate and remember language than words which are ‘just spoken’—if you teach children a song, it somehow ‘sticks’ (2003: 94).” Therefore, learning language by singing or listening to songs is good for children because “music and rhythm are an essential part of language learning for young learners (Philips, 2003: 94).”
There are ten English children songs used in this study. They are “Brother John”, “Eensy Weensy Spider”, “Head and Shoulders”, “Hickory Dickory Dock”, “The Farmer in the Dell”, “The Hokey Pokey”, “Row Row Row Your Boat”, “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star”, “The Wheels on the Bus”, and “This Little Piggy”. They are quite known English children songs throughout the world.
Most of those songs are anonymous. They are usually transferred widely from mother to children or from teachers to students or even from friends to friends.
The song “Brother John” has French version, “Frère Jacques”. Both versions are very famous, especially in English-speaking and French-speaking countries. “Brother John” is “believed to be French in origin, and even in the English-speaking world, it is frequently sung in French (http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/frere_jacques).”
“Et qui rit des curés d’Oc?” The poem in French is a graceful tribute to the monks of Languedoc. The word ‘Oc’ may refer to Occitania (http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/hickory_dickory_dock).
Other song, “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star” is a combination of “the tune of the 1761 French melody “Ah! Vous Dirai-je, Maman” with an English poem “The Star” by Jane Taylor, published in 1806 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ twinkle_twinkle_little_star).” While “Row, Row, Row Your Boat” is a popular English children's song, often sung as a round. It can also be an 'action' song where singers sit opposite one another and 'row' forwards and backwards with joined hands. The tune is credited to Eliphalet Oram Lyte in the publication ofThe
Franklin Square Song Collection in 1881 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/row_row_ row). And, “This Little Piggy” is first published in 1728 as a song which is also a counting rhyme, that the children would count their toes while singing the song (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/this_little_piggy).
In this study, the writer wants to analyze the arrangement of the sentences or lyrics in the songs and the semantic relationship between lines in lyrics of children songs.
B. Problem Formulation
There are three problems discussed in this thesis. The problems are formulated as follows:
1. What are the syntactic categories of the sentences?
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3. What are the semantic relationships among the sentences in the lyrics?
C. Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study are, firstly, to know about the syntactic categories of sentences of the children song’s lyrics by observing what type the sentences are. It is also to identify the sentence structures lay on the children song’s lyrics by determining the clause patterns. And lastly, it is to find out the semantic relationships among the sentences in the lyrics by comprehending the logical relationships among sentences.
D. Definition of Terms
There are some terms related to this study that are needed to be defined in order to avoid misunderstanding. They are syntax, semantic, and song.
1. Syntax
Syntax is derived from two Greek elements that are equated to together and arrangement (Poole, 1999: 83). Poole in An Introduction to Linguistics wrote “syntax is the study of utterances” (1999: 93). Moreover, he states that syntax is “the structure of phrases and sentences” (1999: 7).
2. Semantics
More is also stated that “some of the semantic relationships we observed between words are also found between sentences” (2000: 164).
3. Song
7 CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
In this chapter, there are two subtitles. They are Review of Related Theories and Theoretical Framework. In Review of Related Theories, there are four theories that will be reviewed. The theories are theory on types of sentence, theory on clause pattern, theory on meaning, and theory on sentential meaning. Theoretical Framework describes the contribution of the theories and reviews in solving the problems of the study.
A. Review of Related Theories
Traugott and Pratt said in Linguistics for Students of Literature that “all sentences in English basically consist of a noun phrase and a verb phrase” (1980: 131) so that analyzing English sentence structures can be started by seeing or defining the noun phrase and the verb phrase of the sentences. Usually a sentence can be defined by identifying the verb phrase of the sentence.
To analyze the children song lyrics there are four main theories that will be reviewed. They are the types of sentences and clause patterns, theory on meaning, and on sentential meaning.
1. Theory on Types of Sentences
sentences are classified in four main sentence classes (types). In A University Grammar of English, Quirk and Greenbaum mentioned that the four main
sentence classes are declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory (1982: 191). Finch gave more explanation that “these relate to the functions of statement, question, command, and exclamation” (2000:118).
A declarative contains statement in which the subject is always present and generally precedes the verb.
e.g. John will speak to the boss today.
S V O A
From the example, it can be seen that the subject comes first before the verb. This kind of sentence pattern can be understood as positive sentence.
Interrogative is also known as question. Interrogative is sentence that is marked by one of these criteria:
a. The placing of the operator immediately in front of the subject e.g. Will John speak to the boss today?
aux S V O A
From the example, the possible answer to this question is “No, John will not speak to the boss today” or “Yes, John will speak to the boss today”. This criterion is also known as yes-no question. It is because the only possible respond the addresser may get is ‘yes’ or ‘no’. There are some types of yes-no questions. The first is positive yes-no question. It may contain nonassertive items such as
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anyonecall last night?” The answer might be ‘yes’ or ‘no’. It depends on the truth whether there was someone who called or there was not.
However, a question may be biased toward a positive or negative answer. A question is positive if it uses assertive forms rather than the usual non-assertive forms, e.g. “Didsomeonecall last night?”
Another type is negative yes-no question. It is a question containing a negative form of one kind or another, e.g. “Isn’t your car working?” It also may combinenot(the formal sign of negative orientation) with the assertive items, e.g. “Hasn’t the boat leftalready?” The possible answer to this question also depends on the truth condition whether the boat has left already or has not.
A Tag Question consists of a statement and a question. The question tag contains operator plus pronoun, with or without a negative particle; the choice of the operator are determined by the verb phrase in the superordinate clause, e.g. “Joan recognized you,didn’t she?” The most common type of tag question is that the tag question is negative if the statement is positive and vice versa. The choice of operator and pronoun depends on the statement.
b. The initial positioning of an interrogative or wh-element (wh-interrogatives) and the subject-operator inversion
e.g. Who will you speak to?
Q word aux S V prep
Wh-interrogatives or wh-questions are formed with the aid of one of
element containing the Q-words) generally comes first in the sentence, and second, the Q-word itself takes first position in the Q-element.
c. Rising intonation (declarative questions) e.g. You will speak to the BÓSS?
This type is an exceptional type of yes-no question identical in form to a statement, except for the final rising intonation. Usually this type of question is an emphasized response to a certain statement uttered by the addresser.
An imperative may mean command which is sentence that normally has no overt grammatical subject, and whose verb is in imperative (has the base form).
e.g. Speak to the boss today.
Ø V O A
In the example above, the sentence has no subject preceding the verb. However, this sentence can be understood to the addressee that the person needs to speak to the boss today.
An exclamatory is an exclamation which is sentence having an initial phrase introduced by what or how, without inversion of subject and operator.
e.g. What a noise they are making!
2. Theory on Clause Patterns
A sentence may consist of one or more clauses. InA University Grammar
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a. Subject + Verb + Adverb e.g. Mary is in the house
S V Aplace
b. Subject + Verb + Complement
e.g. Mary is kind / Mary is a nurse
S V C S V C
c. Subject + Verb + Object
e.g. Somebody caught the ball
S V O
d. Subject + Verb + Object + Adverb e.g. I put the plate on the table
S V O Aplace
e. Subject + Verb + Object + Complement e.g. We have proved him wrong
S V O C
f. Subject + Verb + Object + Object
e.g. She gives me expensive presents
S V O O
g. Subject + Verb
e.g. The child laughed
S V
object, and adverb of the clauses have to be discovered first. There are some ways to identify subject, object, and adverb. They are suggested below.
To define a subject, there are some points that are suggested in Quirk and Greenbaum’s A University Grammar of English. They stated that a subject is normally a noun phrase or a clause with nominal function. For examples, a house, three scouts, the beautiful young lady.
They also stated that a subject takes place before the verb phrase in declarative clauses, and immediately after the operator in questions. For examples, ‘My uncle has a big house’ and ‘Does my uncle have a big house?’ The subject of the examples is ‘my uncle’. In the first sentence, the subject precedes the verb ‘has’. In the second sentence, the subject is after the operator ‘does’. In addition, a subject has number and person concord, where applicable, with the verb phrase (1982: 170).
To identify an object, there are some ways of identification suggested. An object, like a subject, is a noun phrase or clause with nominal function. It normally follows the subject and the verb phrase. And, by the passive transformation, an object assumes the status of object. For example,
Rudy eats an apple.An apple is eaten by Rudy.
There are two kinds of object. They are direct object and indirect object. An indirect object precedes the direct object if both objects are present. The indirect object is semantically equivalent to prepositional phrase (1982: 170).
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clause with nominal function, having a co-referential relation with the subject (or object). Then, a complement follows the subject, verb phrase, and (if one present) object. Lastly, it does not become subject through the passive transformation (1982: 170).
At last, an adverbial is an adverb phrase, adverbial clause, noun phrase, or prepositional phrase. Moreover, it is generally mobile, which is capable of occurring in more than one position in the clause. An adverbial is also generally optional, which may be added to or removed from a sentence without affecting its acceptability.
3. Theory on Meaning a. Meaning
To understand an utterance or a sentence, it can be derived from the meaning of the words it contains. A word may have more than one meaning. For example, if we suggest the meaning of a word in dictionary, there might be several explanations suggested. It is because one of the characteristics of dictionaries is that “they provide definitions by suggesting words or phrases which, we are given to understand, have the ‘same’ meaning, though what is same-ness is a problem that we shall not be able to escape (Palmer, 1981: 3-4).” Hence, dictionary might be confusing sometimes.
hearers, and context (1981: 7).” Therefore, in learning meaning, understanding the circumstance or the background of the text may help to comprehend the other meaning.
b. Components
In F. R. Palmer’sSemantics, components are defined as “the total meaning of a word being seen in terms of a number of distinct elements or components of meaning (1981: 108).” Moreover, it is said that to recognize components is easy because components are “where words can be set out in a diagrammatic form to represent some kind of ‘proportional’ relationship (1981: 109).” Components set out kinship of a certain word with other words so that some categories will be revealed in order to get more understanding about their relationship.
In componential analysis, it is allowed to give definitions for words in terms of a few components (1981: 110). Words can be categorized into some categories that counterpart them. As more is stated by Aitchison, “the attempt to divide lexical items into component parts is known as componential analysis (2003: 92).”
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However, the terms ‘component’ and ‘componential analysis’ are not often used nowadays. They are now widely known and mentioned as ‘semantic properties’. As stated by Aitchison that “nowadays, people tend to talk of words having semantic properties, which is somewhat more satisfactory (2003: 93).”
c. Meaningful Units
There are some meaningful units. These meaningful units are important to comprehend what elements forming a meaningful text.
Firstly, morpheme is the smallest syntactic unit. The fundamental criterion of morpheme is that “a morpheme cannot be cut up into smaller syntactic unit (Aitchison, 2003: 60).” There are two types of morpheme. They are free morphemes which may be attached to another morpheme or can occur by themselves as whole words, and bound morphemes which should be attached to another (2003: 61).
A bound morpheme is of two main types. They are inflectional morphemes, that do not change either the meaning or the part of speech of the word attached, and derivational morphemes, which generate new meaning or/and new part of speech that form a wholly new word (2003: 61).
The examples of inflectional morphemes are –ed as in educated, –es as in strawberries, and –ing as in floating. The examples of derivational morphemes
are –ly as in beautifully, un– as in unacceptable, and im– as in imperfect.
Lexical items are the words that may be found when the words are looked up in the dictionaries. When the word is suggested in the dictionaries, there might be found some suggestions. They are generally known as synonyms. Syntactic words are the forms that a word can transform into. The transformations of the words may happen because of the changing of the tenses, or the changing of the quantity, or the changing of part of speech. Phonological words are the ways a word may be pronounced (Aitchison, 2003: 57-58).
Palmer stated “the traditional definition of thesentence as ‘the expression of a complete thought’.” Furthermore, Palmer described that “English sentence will consist minimally of a subject noun phrase and a verb phrase as its predicate or complement (1981: 37).” The basic building blocks to create a sentence are noun phrase as subject and verb phrase as predicate. Predicate will explain what the subject does.
Utterance meaning is different from sentence meaning. “The sentence meaning being directly predictable from the grammatical and lexical features of the sentence, while utterance meaning includes all the various types of meaning that we have just been discussing (Palmer, 1981: 40-41).” Utterance cannot be understood if it is not put into sentences. In other words, a context cannot be figured out if it is not placed in a text.
4. Theory on Sentential meaning
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meaning of the words constructing the sentence. It is also stated that adverbs may complement or qualify the meaning.
When sentences are made, there will be possibilities that the sentences may be right (true) or wrong (false). To know the truth of the sentences, as some linguists say, they should have reference. In other words, “the truth or falsehood of these sentences is their reference (2000: 171).” Aitchison also stated about the truth condition. In Linguistics, it is stated that “some semanticists talk about such sentences as being ‘false’, in that they could not possibly be ‘true’; they deal with meaning by working out conditions under which sentences will be either ‘true’ or ‘false’ (2003: 98).” Truth condition may help to recognize anomalous utterances in certain text.
There are three types of meaning relationship. They are:
a. Paraphrase
Paraphrase is basically a synonymy. As stated by Traugott and Pratt that “synonymy is the same thing as paraphrase (1980: 203).” The definition of paraphrase is that if a sentence has same truth condition with another sentence, the two sentences can be paraphrases (Fromkin, et al, 2000: 172). The two sentences must have the same real circumstance. For example, there are two sentences:
The horse threw the rider.
The rider was thrown by the horse.
the same truth condition. It can be said that those two sentences are paraphrases because they have the same real circumstances.
b. Entailment
Entailment is that when a sentence entails or implies the truth of another sentence (Fromkin, et al, 2000: 172). The sentence that entails another sentence might be the result or even the cause of the entailed sentence. For example,
Corday assassinated Marat.
Marat is dead.
The first sentence entails the truth of another sentence. It can be seen from the truth conditions or real circumstances of those sentences. For Marat has been assassinated, there will not be other possibilities than that, in the moment of speaking, Marat is dead.
c. Contradiction
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Elizabeth II is Queen of England.
Elizabeth II is a man.
The first sentence is true, and then the second is false. The truth of the first sentence saying that Elizabeth II is a queen which is surely a woman (+female) makes the second sentence false. There is no possibility that Elizabeth II is a man (–female). Therefore, they are considered contradiction because the truths of those sentences are contradictory one another.
B. Theoretical Framework
In writing this study, theories are needed to verify the eligibility of the analyses in this study. This study is a syntactic and semantic study so that the theories used are theory on types of sentences, theory on clause pattern, theory on meaning and theory on sentential meaning.
The theory on types of sentences is used to help writer analyzing which type of sentence that may be discovered from the data which are the lyrics of children songs. The theory is taken from Quirk and Greenbaum’s A University Grammar of English.
The second theory is theory on clause pattern. This theory is needed because it will help the writer observing the patterns of the clauses applied to the sentences of the lyrics. The theory is taken also from Quirk and Greenbaum’s A University Grammar of English.
theory on meaning explains about meaning and its element. And the fourth theory is the theory on sentential meaning which explains about how to discover the meaning connections among sentences. This theory will help the writer to find out the semantic relationships that may or may not relate the sentences (lyrics) in the children songs (data). The theories are taken from Fromkin, Blair, and Collins’An
21 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
This chapter covers three parts. They are Object of the Study, Approach of the Study, and Method of the Study. In Object of the Study, the data used in this study will be described. Approach of the Study discusses the approach used for analyzing the data. Lastly, Method of the Study explains the processes of analyzing the data.
A. Object of the Study
This study used ten English children songs that are widely known all over the world. The songs are “Brother John”, “Eensy Weensy Spider”, “Head and Shoulders”, “Hickory Dickory Dock”, “The Farmer in the Dell”, “The Hokey Pokey”, “Row Row Row Your Boat”, “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star”, “The Wheels on the Bus”, and “This Little Piggy”. The writers of these songs are mostly anonymous. They are songs that come from English-speaking countries. Most of them are songs which have been sung for ages and inherited from generation to generation.
In this study, the object examined is the lyrics of those children songs.
B. Approach of the Study
Syntactically, this study analyzes the children song lyrics by examining the type of each sentence, and then, their clause pattern. It is because syntax is the study about how to put together words and phrases to generate a sentence in language.
Meanwhile, semantics is studying about meanings of phrases, words, or sentences in language. Meaning is not just about the connotation or denotation of the phrases, words, or sentences, but also about the connection of them. Therefore, semantically, this study examines how the meaning relationships among the sentences in the lyrics are.
C. Method of the Study
This study is a library research. All of the data are taken from written sources, such as books and articles from internet.
To analyze the data there were some steps. The first step was dealing with the first problem of this study. The writer analyzed the sentences of the song lyrics trying to find the types of the sentences. Each sentence of the lyrics was being analyzed by categorizing which type each sentence on the lyrics was, whether they were declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
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This chapter contains the answers to problem formulation of the study. There are three questions in the problem formulation. Therefore, the analysis will be divided into three parts in which each part answers one question.
A. The syntactic categories of the sentences
The sentences on the lyrics have each own type. Each of those sentences is analyzed by indentifying the type of each sentence.
As mentioned in the theories, there are four types of sentences. They are declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. Thus, each sentence on the lyrics of the children songs will be categorized to one of them.
The total finding on sentences of certain types is listed in table below. Types of sentences sentences
Declarative 88
Interrogative 3
Imperative 2
Exclamatory 1
Table 1: Total findings on types of sentences
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information in the sentence. It is usually started with a capital letter and ended with a period.
The writer found that there are 88 sentences of declarative. All of the data of declarative sentences can be seen on appendix 1 in Appendices page.
The writer found that most of the sentences on the lyrics of the children songs are in declarative. This is because one of the functions of songs, especially children songs, is to inform things. In the lyrics of the children songs case, it is to let the children know words about their surrounding objects, themselves, and their actions. By using declarative sentence, the song writers can easily state the information.
The writer took some of the data to be presented in the analysis. They are: (1) Morning bells are ringing.
(2) Down came the rain and washed the spider out. (3) Out came the sun and dried up all the rain. (4) The farmer takes a wife.
(5) The wife takes a child. (6) You put your right foot out.
(7) Under the water and over the water the paddles slide. (8) Under the water and over the water the row boat glides. (9) The money on the bus goes clink, clink, clink.
(10) I had a piggy on the phone.
sentence (1), the subject is ‘morning bells’. It precedes the predicate ‘are ringing’ which is in continuous form. In sentence (4), the subject of the sentence is ‘the farmer’. The predicate is ‘takes’. In sentence (5), the subject is ‘the wife’ and the predicate is ‘takes’. The predicates of sentence (4) and sentence (5) are in simple present tense so that the infinitives are added with –s, for the subject is in singular third person. The same case happens in sentence (9), the subject of this sentence is ‘the money on the bus’ and the predicate is ‘goes’. The predicate of this sentence has been added –es because the head of the subject (noun phrase) is uncountable. Another example is from sentence (6). The subject of this sentence is ‘you’ and the predicate is ‘put’. And in sentence (10), the subject ‘I’ precedes the predicate ‘had’. Those sentences mentioned are in declarative. It can be seen from the way the subjects and predicates of the sentences are positioned.
However, there will be an awkwardness seeing the sentences (2) and (3). In these sentences the subjects are positioned after the predicates. Actually, the sentence is correctly a declarative. The different positioning of the subjects and the predicates is because they are inverted. The subjects and the predicates are inverted that the predicates can precede the subjects.
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the sentences (2) and (3) are in declarative because actually the subjects of those sentences precede the objects.
Another type of sentences is interrogative. Interrogative is essentially a question. Questions are ended with question marks. The characteristic of questions is different from declarative. Questions should begin with an operator or a question word or both of them.
From the sentences on the lyrics of the children songs, the writer found 3 interrogative sentences. They are:
(1) Are you sleeping?
(2) Piggy, won’t you come with me? (3) Are we there yet?
One of the characteristics of interrogatives is that the operator is directly followed by the subject of the sentence. The three sentences above are interrogative because the operators of those three sentences are directly followed by the subject of each sentence. However, two of them have different category with the other one.
The sentences (1) and (3) are in the same category of interrogative. They are positive yes-no question. One of the characteristics of positive yes-no question is that it contains positive form. Those sentences are in positive form. The operators of the sentences do not have negative form ‘not’.
‘you’. In the sentence (3), the operator precedes the subject ‘we’. The subjects are then directly followed by the verb or, in the case of sentence (3), by the adverb.
On the other hand, the sentence (2) is in a negative form so that it is categorized in negative yes-no question. The operator of this sentence has been added with negative element ‘not’ that it becomes ‘won’t’ (will not). The operator, then, is directly followed by subject ‘you’. After the subject, the predicate ‘come’ is placed.
After finding all the interrogatives, the writer observed the lyrics to find imperative sentences on the lyrics. Imperative sentences are the sentences to express command. The writer found 2 sentences in imperative. They are:
(1) Row your boat gently down the stream. (2) Row your boat.
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The last type of sentences is exclamatory. Exclamatory is basically an exclamation that expresses a feeling. The writer found only one sentence in exclamatory. It is:
(1) How I wonder what you are.
Although this sentence begins with a question word ‘how’, this sentence is not a question or an interrogative sentence. This sentence begins with how, and then is directly followed with a clause without inversion of subject and predicate. The subject of this sentence’s clause is ‘I’ and the predicate of the clause is ‘wonder’. This is one of the characteristics of exclamatory that the sentence begins with question words; in this sentence, the question word is ‘how’. And then, it is followed with a clause. Therefore, this sentence shows an exclamation.
It is found that declarative is mostly used by song writers in the lyrics of the children songs. It is because the main point on making children songs is to give information to the children. However, there are parts of the songs that are not even sentences. Those parts usually mention words without even making them into a sentence. For example, in the song “Head and Shoulder”, the song writer did not put the words in the song to be sentences. It is found that the words are nouns. There are no verbs at all. This is probably due to the aim of making the children songs. That is to communicate information. The song’s writer tried to tell about the parts of human body.
B. The sentence structures in the lyrics of the children songs
are seven clause patterns that may be applied to the words, in order to produce a correct clause and then sentence.
To answer the second problem of this study, the writer observed the clause patterns of each sentence found on the lyrics of the children songs. In this part, the analysis will be more on the clauses of the sentences of the lyrics of the songs. The writer explored the clauses of the sentences in the lyrics of the children songs, and then matched them up to the seven clause patterns.
As the result, the writer found that not all of the patterns are used to perform sentences in the lyrics. There are five clause pattern found in the lyrics. The collected data of clauses that had been classified into seven clause patterns are:
Clause Pattern Clauses
SVA 17
SVC 10
SVO 12
SVOA 31
SVOC 0
SVOO 0
SV 2
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The first clause pattern being discussed is SVA (subject + verb + adverb). The writer found 19 clauses that are matched with the pattern. All of the 19 clauses are presented in Appendix 2 in the Appendices page.
The writer took some of the data to be presented in the discussion. Some of the collected data are:
(1) the clock struck one (2) the clock struck three (3) the clock struck five
(4) under the water and over the water the paddles slide (5) under the water and over the water the row boat glides (6) down came the rain
(7) out came the sun
(8) I gotta go to the bathroom
(9) this little piggy went to New York City
Except the clauses (4) up to (7), all the clauses (1) up to (9) are clearly patterned SVA. The subjects of those clauses can be easily identified because the subjects are positioned at the beginning of those clauses. The subjects of clauses (1) – (3) and (8) – (9) are ‘the clock’, ‘I’, and ‘this little piggy’. Right after the subjects of those clauses, the verbs are following. The verbs of those clauses are ‘struck’, ‘gotta go’, ‘went’.
English word is ‘gotta’. It is the abbreviation that is commonly used in informal daily conversation. The full verb which is in Standard English should be ‘have got to go’.
After the verbs are identified, the next following in the pattern is adverb. The adverbs of clauses (1) – (3) and clauses (8) – (9) are ‘one’, ‘three’, ‘five’, ‘to the bathroom’, and ‘to New York City’.
On the other hand, there are four clauses that are not exactly SVA. The formation of the clause elements is switched so that it is seen on the clauses that the adverbs are put at the beginning of the clauses.
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Another kind of clause patterns is SVC (subject + verb + complement). Complement in a clause can be the words that are positioned as objects but they cannot be the subject if the clause is transformed into passive form. The writer found four clauses in the lyrics which are SVC patterned. They are:
(1) life is just a dream
(2) the wipers on the bus go swish, swish, swish (3) the horn on the bus goes beep, beep, beep
(4) the eensy weensy spider went up the water spout (5) the money on the bus goes clink, clink, clink (6) the mouse ran up the clock
(7) two mice ran up the clock (8) three mice ran up the clock (9) four mice ran up the clock (10) five mice ran up the clock
The subject of clause (1) is ‘life’. Actually, this clause has no verb. It is impossible if a clause has no verb, especially in Standard English language. Therefore, it is added with ‘be’ which becomes ‘is’ (the operator). It becomes the verb of the clause. And, the complement of the clause is ‘a dream’.
sounds. They are repeated to give effects to the children or the people singing the song. The more they pronounce them, they will memorize them automatically.
For the clauses (6) up to (10) the subjects are ‘the mouse’, ‘two mice’, three mice’, ‘four mice’, and ‘five mice’. The verb of those clauses is the same, which is ‘ran up’. The verb is a phrasal verb which consists of a verb and a preposition. And the complement of those clauses is ‘the clock’.
Other kind of clause patterns found in the lyrics is SVO (subject + verb + object). The writer found some clauses that have SVO pattern on the lyrics of the children songs. They are:
(1) the rain washed the spider out (2) the sun dried up all the rain (3) I really hate mice
(4) the farmer takes a wife (5) the wife takes a child (6) the child takes a friend (7) the friend takes a dog (8) the dog takes a cat (9) the cat takes a mouse (10) the mouse takes the cheese (11) you do the Hokey Pokey (12) he had roast beef
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example, the subject of the clause (2) is ‘the sun’. The verb ‘dried up’ follows the subject and precedes the object ‘all the rain’. The verb of this clause is a verb phrase. The first word of the verb phrase has been changed into past form to perform simple past tense. Clause (4) has a subject ‘the farmer’. The subject is then directly followed by the verb ‘takes’ which is, after that, followed by the object ‘a wife’. The verb of this clause has been added with –s because the subject of the clause is categorized as singular third person. Another example from clause (10), the clause begins with a noun phrase ‘the mouse’. This becomes the subject of the clause. ‘Takes’ is the verb of the clause. The object of the clause is ‘the cheese’. The verb of clause (10) has also been added with –s because the subject is categorized as singular third person. Same pattern is also simply seen from clause (12). The subject of this clause is ‘he’, and the verb is ‘had’. ‘Roast beef’ is the object of this clause. However, the verb of this clause has been transformed to past form. It is to perform simple past tense on the sentence.
Clause (1) actually has the same characteristic with clause (2) that the verbs of those clauses are verb phrase which contain more than one word. The subject of clause (1) is ‘the rain’. The object of this clause is ‘the spider’. Then, the verb of this clause is ‘washed out’. One of the characteristics of phrase that contains preposition is that the prepositional word can be placed before or after the object without changing the meaning of the whole phrase. However, this cannot be treated to all phrases that contain prepositional word.
All of the data can be seen on Appendix 3 in the Appendices page. Some of the data are presented below. They are:
(1) you put your left hand out (2) you put your right shoulder out (3) you put your rear end in
(4) you put your whole self in (5) I had a piggy in my lunch box (6) I had a piggy in my bathtub
Clauses (1) up to clause (4) are taken from the same song. The subject of those clauses is ‘you’. The verb of those clauses is ‘put’. The object of clause (1) is ‘your left hand’ and the adverb is ‘out’. The object of clause (2) is ‘your right shoulder’ and the adverb is ‘out’. In clause (3), the object is ‘rear end’ and the adverb is ‘in’. And, in the clause (4), the object of this clause is ‘whole self’ and the adverb is ‘in’.
Clauses (5) up to (6) are taken from the song “This Little Piggy”. Clause (5) has ‘I’ as the subject of the clause and ‘had’ as the verb of the clause. The same as clause (5), clause (6) also has ‘I’ as the subject and ‘had’ as the verb of the clause.
Next type of clause patterns found from the clauses on the lyrics is SV (subject + verb). The writer found four clauses having SV clause pattern. They are:
(1) are you sleeping
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Clause (2) is obviously in SV pattern. The subject of this clause is ‘morning bells’. The verb of this clause is ‘are ringing’. The infinitive of the verb of clause (2) is ‘ring’. It is added with an operator ‘are’ preceding and –ing to perform present continuous tense.
Clause (1) is still in interrogative form. The clause begins with an operator and then subject following the operator. If it is transformed into positive form, it will be “you are sleeping”. From the positive form, this clause has only subject and predicate as the elements. The subject is ‘you’ and the verb is ‘are sleeping’. The verb of this clause is also performing present continuous tense that the verb is added with –ing and an operator preceding it.
From the discussion, it is seen that the SVA and SVOA clause pattern are often used in the lyrics. The writer did not find any clauses that have pattern in SVOC (subject + verb + object + complement) or SVOO (subject + verb + object + object). It might be because in those clause patterns the positioning and the identification of the words are rather complicated. Therefore, the two clause patterns are not discussed in the analysis.
C. The semantic relationships among the sentences in the lyrics
some lyrics of the songs that have meaning relationship one another, but, on other hand, there are lyrics of the songs that do not have one.
In the theory, it has been mentioned that there are three types of meaning relationship (Fromkin, Blair and Collins, 2000: 171). They are paraphrase, entailment, and contradiction. In this analysis result, the lyrics of the songs are analyzed one by one to find out whether the sentences are arranged as paraphrase, entailment, or contradiction one another.
The writer had assembled the data of findings. It is not always that, in a song, there will be all three of the paraphrase, entailment, and contradiction among the sentences. There might be only two or one of them. Even there might be none at all. All the findings on the meaning relationships are displayed in the table below.
Titles of the songs Paraphrase Entailment Contradiction
Brother John 0 0 1
Eensy Weensy Spider 0 1 0
Head and Shoulder 0 0 0
Hickory Dickory Dock 0 0 0
The Farmer in the Dell 0 0 0
The Hokey Pokey 0 0 26
Row Row Row Your Boat 0 1 0
Twinkle Twinkle Little Star 0 0 1
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This Little Piggy 0 0 7
Total= 0 2 35
Table 3: Relationships among lyrics in each song
The discussions will be divided into three parts. Each of the parts contains the discussion of one type of meaning relationships.
1. Paraphrase
When one sentence is the paraphrase of another one, it has the exactly same meaning with the paraphrased one. Sometimes it is just transformed into passive form. Hence, the transformation will not change the meaning of the sentence.
From the table above, it is stated that there are no paraphrases as the meaning relationship among the sentences in the lyrics of the songs. It might be presumed that among one sentence to another sentence there is repeated truth condition which is the characteristic of paraphrase.
In the song “Hickory Dickory Dock”, paraphrase also cannot be found. The sentences of this song have different truth condition which should be the same to have them as paraphrases. The writer took an example on the first stanza.
Hickory dickory dock, the mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck one, the mouse ran down.
Hickory dickory dock.
The first sentence of the stanza tells that there was a mouse running up the clock. The second sentence tells that it was just one o’clock and that the mouse went down the clock. Both of the sentences are in different truth condition so that they cannot be a paraphrase.
On the other hand, the sentences in the song “Farmer in the Dell” cannot have paraphrase because the sentences are repeated. The writer took example from the lyrics of the second stanza.
The farmer takes a wife, the farmer takes a wife. Hi, ho the dairy-o, the farmer takes a wife.
From the lyrics, it can be seen that the sentence ‘The farmer takes a wife” is repeated twice. The three of them convey the same idea that the farmer in the song takes a wife. However, the structure of the sentence is in the same pattern. And every single word is the same and positioned the same way. Hence, the three of them cannot be the paraphrase of one another.
This is also the case of the song “The Wheels on the Bus”. In the song there are two sentences in each stanza, except for the last stanza. The writer took the first stanza as an example. The first stanza is:
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The wheels on the bus go round and round. All through the town.
The first sentence of this stanza is ‘The wheels on the bus go round and round”. The second sentence is “The wheels on the bus go round and round”. The first and the second sentences are the same. It can be understood that actually the second sentence is the repetition of the first sentence. Hence, there is no paraphrase found on this stanza.
However, the song “Head and Shoulder” has no paraphrase because there is not even a sentence found in the lyrics of the song. The song contains words only. The lyrics of the song are:
Head, shoulders, knees and toes, knees and toes. Head, shoulders, knees and toes, knees and toes. Eyes and ears and mouth and nose.
Head, shoulders, knees and toes, knees and toes.
It can be seen on the lyrics that from the beginning until the end of the song, there cannot be found any pattern of a sentence and any verb. The lyrics of the song only mentions head, shoulders, knees, toes, eyes, ears, mouth, and nose. Those words are not arranged to make a sentence.
2. Entailment
From the table, it is stated that there are two cases of entailment found among sentences on the lyrics of the children songs. Entailment is understood as a sentence which is the cause or the result of the entailed sentence (Fromkin, et al, 2000: 173). The writer found two entailments on the lyrics of the children songs. The entailments are found in the song “Eensy Weensy Spider” and in the song “Row Row Row Your Boat”.
The writer only found one entailment on the lyrics of the song of “Eensy Weensy Spider”. There is only one stanza in the song. The entailment was found on the third and fourth sentences of this song. The full lyric of the song is:
Eensy weensy spider went up the water spout Down came the rain and washed the spider out Out came the sun and dried up all the rain.
So the eensy weensy spider went up the spout again.
The third sentence informs that the sun appeared and made all the rain become dry. The fourth sentence tells that the eensy weensy spider climbed up the water spout again. The eensy weensy spider could climb the water spout again because the sun had made all the rain dried. Hence, from those two sentences, the writer can find entailment. The third sentence of the song entails the fourth sentence.
While in the song “Row Row Row Your Boat”, the entailment is found in the last stanza of the song.
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The first sentence of the stanza tells that the paddles of the row boat are sliding under the water and over the water. And the second sentence tells that the row boat is gliding under the water and over the water. The row boat can glide under the water and over the water because there are paddles slid to make it move. Hence, they have an entailment. The first sentence entails the second sentence.
The writer could not find any more entailment on the other lyrics of the children songs. Most lyrics of the children songs do not have any entailments among the sentences on their lyrics.
For example, in the song titled “The Hokey Pokey”, there cannot be found any sentence that entails another sentence. The writer took an example on the first and the second sentence of the first stanza of this song.
You put your right foot in. You put your right foot out.
The first sentence tells that the ‘you’ position the right foot in. And the second sentence tells that the ‘you’ positions the right foot out. It cannot be understood that the ‘you’ positions the right foot in because or as the result of that the ‘you’ positions the right foot out. They might not be entailment, but they can be sequential actions. After the ‘you’ positions the right foot in, the ‘you’ positions the right foot out.
Another example is from the song “This Little Piggy”. There is not found any entailment in these lyrics of the song. The writer took example from the first and the second sentences of the first stanza in the lyrics of the song.
The first sentence informs that the little piggy was leaving for the market. And the second sentence informs that the little piggy was in the house. If the little piggy were going to the market, the little piggy would not be in the house at the same time. Both of the sentences are not the entailment of other. It would not be understood that the little piggy was going to the market because or as the result of that the little piggy was in the house.
In the song “Head and Shoulder”, the writer cannot find any entailments among the sentences. It is because in the song, there only mentions the words or the nouns, but there are no sentences. Therefore, there will not be any entailments among the sentences found in the song.
From the discussion above, there are not so many entailments found among the lyrics of the children songs. There might be often found that the sentences on the lyrics make sequences one another. The children songs are supposed to be sung and listened to by children so that they can learn the language. Children songs which have sequential action in the lyrics can be sung along with performing the action. This will help the children enjoy the songs and they memorize the lyrics easier.
3. Contradiction
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contradiction and contradiction itself seem to be particularly exciting and amusing to children” (1980: 206). Hence, the writers of the songs mostly express contradictions in their songs.
The writer found contradictions in three songs. They are “Brother John”, “The Hokey Pokey”, and “This Little Piggy”.
In the song “Brother John”, the contradiction lies on the first and second sentences. The first sentence is asking whether the addressee is sleeping or not. The second sentence informs that the morning bells have been ringing. Logically, when the bells start ringing, all the people must have been awaken. So, it seems peculiar that although the morning bells have been ringing, the addressee is still sleeping. Usually, when people hear the bells, they wake up. Hence, it is a contradiction.
In another song, “The Hokey Pokey”, the contradictions can be found in all thirteen stanzas of the song’s lyrics. The writer took the example from the first stanza. It is:
You put your right foot in. You put your right foot out.
You put your right foot in and you shake it all about. You do the Hokey Pokey and you turn yourself around. That's what it's all about.
are not the same. It seems a contradiction (peculiar) that when the right foot should be in, the right foot should not be out in the same time. The writer also found a contradiction in the second and the third sentences. The second sentence says that the right foot is out. The third sentence says that the ‘you’ places the right foot in and then shakes it all about. The contradiction lies on the truth that when the position of the right foot is out, it is impossible for the right foot to be positioned in at the same time.
The writer also found contradictions among sentences in the lyrics of the song of “This Little Piggy”. The writer took example from the first stanza. In the first stanza, the writer found two contradictions. The first contradiction is among the first and the second sentences of the stanza.
This Little Piggy went to market. This Little Piggy stayed home.
The first sentence tells that the little piggy went to market so that it contradicts the second sentence that tells that the little piggy stayed home. That the little piggy went to market cannot be the cause or the result of that the little piggy stayed home. Logically, when the little piggy is in the market, the little piggy will not be in the house.
The second contradiction is among the third and the fourth sentences of this stanza. The sentences are:
This Little Piggy he had roast beef. This Little Piggy had none.
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is that the little piggy had roast beef and, in the same time, the little piggy had none at all. It is also cannot be understood in the way that the little piggy had roast beef is the cause or the result of that the little piggy had none.
However, the writer cannot find any contradictions in other songs. For example, in the song “Hickory Dickory Dock”, there are not contradictions found in this song. The writer took example from the first stanza of this song.
In the first stanza, there is not found any contradictory because the truth conditions of the two sentences are different. These are the first and the second sentences of the first stanza:
Hickory dickory dock, the mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck one, the mouse ran down.
The first sentence tells that there was a mouse running up the clock. The second sentence informs that it was one o’clock and that the mouse went down the clock. The truth condition of the first sentence does not contradict the truth condition of the second sentence. The truth conditions of the sentences are different and have not relationship so that they may not contradict one another.
In another song, “The Farmer in the Dell”, the writer cannot find any contradictions because in each stanza of this song there is only one sentence that is repeated. The writer took an example from the third stanza of this song.
The wife takes a child, the wife takes a child Hi, ho the dairy-o, the wife takes a child
contradiction in this stanza. It is because to have contradiction among sentences, it needs at least two different sentences.
49 CHAPTER V CONCLUSION
This is the final chapter of the study. In this chapter, all the discussions that have been presented in previous chapters will be concluded. The answers of the problem formulation will be also presented.
Songs can be used for education, as well as entertainment. In schools, children learn many children songs. When they sing songs, they can get the knowledge of words, sentences, and language. Moreover, in schools, children are usually taught to sing the songs along with actions. This makes it easier for children to memorize the lyrics and the melody of the song.
Songs are used also for learning language because singing songs is an enjoyable activity, not only for children but also for adults. The children are in high spirits because they enjoy singing songs. They will then memorize the songs and may sing them repeatedly. Thus, they will memorize all the lyrics and learn the language in the same time.
sentences and that they can get the picture when they learn to produce such sentences in the future.
The next analysis is on the types of clause patterns. There are seven types of clause patterns. However, there are only five clause patterns that are applied on the lyrics of the children songs. There are two clause patterns that are most frequently found on the lyrics. They are the SVA and SVOA clause patterns. There are 17 clauses of SVA clause pattern and 31 clauses of SVOA clause pattern. In these kinds of clause pattern, the children can get to know what the subjects, verbs, adverbs, and objects (for SVOA) are like and where they can be positioned.
The last analysis, it deals with the meaning relationships among the sentences in the lyrics of the children songs. There are three kinds of meaning relationships. They are paraphrase, entailment, and contradiction. It is found that contradiction is the most often found as the semantic relationship among sentences in the lyrics of the children songs. Contradictory sentences seem to give more amusement for the children. Children have high curiosity on things and are easily attracted to things that are different from what they have known before. Because of that, the song writers give contradictions among the sentences in children songs.
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sentences. The children will be able to memorize and understand the words without it being paraphrased.
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Fromkin, Victoria, Davis Blair, and Peter Collins. An Introduction to Language 4thed.Marrickville: Harcourt Australia Pty Limited, 2000.
Finch, Geoffrey.Linguistics Terms and Concepts.,2000.
Howle, Mary Jeanette. "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star: It's More Than Just a Nursery Song - Includes List of Lullaby Song Books and Tapes, and Classical Music to Use as Lullabies". Children Today. FindArticles.com, 2009. <http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1053/is_n4_v18/ai_8001
Megasuryaningsih, Yokebet. The Effectiveness of Using Songs in Teaching Vocabulary to the Beginner Students at the Elementary School. Undergraduate Thesis. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University, 2000. Myers, Jack and Michael Simms.The Longman Dictionary of Poetic Terms. New
York: Longman, 1989.
Palmer, F. R.Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. Phillips, Sarah.Young Learners.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Poole, Geoffrey.Syntactic Theory. New York: Palgrave, 2002.
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Radford, Andrew, Martin Atkinson, David Britain, Harald Clahsen, and Andrew Spencer. Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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(1) Morning bells are ringing. (“Are You Sleeping?”)
(2) The eensy weensy spider went up the water spout. (“Eensy Weensy Spider”)
(3) Down came the rain and washed the spider out. (“Eensy Weensy Spider”) (4) Out came the sun and dried up all the rain. (“Eensy Weensy Spider”) (5) So the eensy weensy spider went up the spout again. (“Eensy Weensy
Spider”)
(6) Hickory dickory dock, the mouse ran up the clock. (“Hickory Dickory Dock”)
(7) The clock struck one. (“Hickory Dickory Dock”) (8) The mouse ran down. (“Hickory Dickory Dock”)
(9) Hickory dickory dock, two mice ran up the clock. (“Hickory Dickory Dock”)
(10) The clock struck two. (“Hickory Dickory Dock”)
(11) Hickory dickory dock, three mice ran up the clock. (“Hickory Dickory Dock”)
(12) The clock struck three. (“Hickory Dickory Dock”)
(13) Hickory dickory dock, four mice ran up the clock. (“Hickory Dickory Dock”)
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(15) Hickory dickory dock, five mice ran up the clock. (“Hickory Dickory Dock”)
(16) The clock struck five. (“Hickory Dickory Dock”)
(17) Oh dear, oh my, I really hate mice. (“Hickory Dickory Dock”) (18) The farmer takes a wife. (“The Farmer in the Dell”)
(19) The wife takes a child. (“The Farmer in the Dell”) (20) The child takes a friend. (“The Farmer in the Dell”) (21) The friend takes a dog. (“The Farmer in the Dell”) (22) The dog takes a cat. (“The Farmer in the Dell”) (23) The cat takes a rat. (“The Farmer in the Dell”) (24) The rat takes the cheese. (“The Farmer in the Dell”) (25) The cheese stands alone. (“The Farmer in the Dell”) (26) You put your right foot in. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(27) You put your right foot out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(28) You put your right foot in and shake it all about. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(29) You do the Hokey Pokey and you turn yourself around. (“Hokey Pokey”) (30) You put your left foot in. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(31) You put your left foot out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(32) You put your left foot in and shake it all about. (“Hokey Pokey”) (33) You put your right hand in. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(34) You put your right hand out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(37) You put your left hand out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(38) You put your left hand in and shake it all about. (“Hokey Pokey”) (39) You put your right shoulder in. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(40) You put your right shoulder out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(41) You put your right shoulder in and shake it all about. (“Hokey Pokey”) (42) You put your left shoulder in. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(43) You put your left shoulder out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(44) You put your left shoulder in and shake it all about. (“Hokey Pokey”) (45) You put your head in. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(46) You put your head out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(47) You put your head in and shake it all about. (“Hokey Pokey”) (48) You put your rear end in. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(49) You put your rear end out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(50) You put your rear end in and shake it all about. (“Hokey Pokey”) (51) You put your elbows in. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(52) You put your elbows out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(53) You put your elbows in and shake it all about. (“Hokey Pokey”) (54) You put your knees in. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(55) You put your knees out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(56) You put your knees in and shake it all about. (“Hokey Pokey”) (57) You put your nose in. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(58) You put your nose out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
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(60) You put your thumb in. (“Hokey Pokey”) (61) You put your thumb out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(62) You put your thumb in and shake it all about. (“Hokey Pokey”) (63) You put your whole self in. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(64) You put your whole self out. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(65) You put your whole self in and shake it all about. (“Hokey Pokey”) (66) That’s what it’s all about. (“Hokey Pokey”)
(67) Life is just a dream. (“Row Row Row Your Boat”)
(68) Under the water and over the water the paddles slide. (“Row Row Row Your Boat”)
(69) Under the water and over the water the row boat glides. (“Row Row Row Your Boat”)
(70) The wheels on the bus go round and round. (“The Wheels on the Bus”) (71) The people on the bus go up and down. (“The Wheels on the Bus”) (72) The wipers on the bus go swish, swish, swish. (“The Wheels on the Bus”) (73) The horn on the bus goes beep, beep, beep. (“The Wheels on the Bus”) (74) The money on the bus goes clink, clink, clink. (“The Wheels on the Bus”) (75) The driver on the bus says, “Move on back”. (“The Wheels on the Bus”) (76) The kids on the bus say, “Are we there yet?” (“The Wheels on the Bus”) (77) This little piggy went to the market. (“This Little Piggy”)
(81) But this little piggy cried wee, wee, wee all the way home. (“This Little Piggy”)
(82) This little piggy went to New York City. (“This Little Piggy”) (83) This little piggy went to London. (“This Little Piggy”)
(84) This little piggy went to Rome. (“This Little Piggy”) (85) I had a piggy in my lunch box. (“This Little Piggy”) (86) I had a piggy at home. (“This Little Piggy”)
