Open Innovation, Crowdsourcing and Co-Creation Challenging the Tourism Industry

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Tourism on the Verge

Series Editors Pauline J. Sheldon

University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA Daniel R. Fesenmaier

University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13605

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Editors

Roman Egger, Igor Gula and Dominik Walcher

Open Tourism

Open Innovation, Crowdsourcing and Co-Creation Challenging the Tourism Industry

1st ed. 2016

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Editors Roman Egger

Innovation & Management in Tourism, Salzburg University of Applied Sciences, Puch Urstein, Austria

Igor Gula

MODUL University Vienna, Wien, Austria Dominik Walcher

School of Design and Product Management, Salzburg University of Applied Sciences, Salzburg-Kuchl, Austria

ISSN 2366-2611 e-ISSN 2366-262X

ISBN 978-3-642-54088-2 e-ISBN 978-3-642-54089-9 DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-54089-9

Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2015957965

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,

reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.

in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and

information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.

Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer-Verlag GmbH Berlin Heidelberg is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

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Preamble and Acknowledgements

The tourism and leisure industry is characterized by a high level of dynamic change.

The entire sector is now facing even greater challenges resulting from the enormous complexities, global competition, rapidly changing structures, processes and products, altered values and standards among customers, social change, and many other factors.

This market dynamism is further accelerated by the great share of information and communication technologies used in the sector, a factor which is also responsible for establishing an entirely new balance of power between the customers and the

providers. Add to this that the increasing expectations on the demand side coupled with the new empowered self-image of the customers, who can or wish to take on a new and more active role throughout the value generation chain in future, call for an innovative approach to be adopted by the entire industry. The tourism industry has, however, always been relatively rigid in its attitude to innovations. And despite the fact that innovative approaches to business are now firmly anchored in many industries, the service sector is significantly behind in this development, and new approaches are only taken up in a very slow and delayed manner. When reading the scientific literature on the subject a point that is immediately apparent is how few and far between technical and innovative approaches are in the tourism context and how very little discussion they receive. Actually there are many approaches of openness and collaboration in the field of tourism. Interestingly, there is no systematic collection and overview of these approaches. The book “Open Tourism” aims to bridge this gap by focusing on reports and case studies of Open Innovation, Crowdsourcing, and Co-Creation in the tourism industry. Therefore methods, theories, and models are discussed and examined

regarding their practical applicability in tourism.

The process by which a book of this kind is written is often laborious and long drawn-out, but frequently beginning with a pleasant or amusing anecdote. This also applies in the present case. Many years ago and long before we ever even thought about bringing out a book on the subject of Open Tourism , Roman visited a small hotel not far from Salzburg. The hotel has 80 beds, and despite the close proximity to the

provincial capital city it is somewhat remote and off the map in a tourism weak valley.

During a discussion, the hotelier explained that over many years he had offered a special week for regular guests in October. The week concerned is always the one in which the hotel is prepared for the winter. This all began when a number of the regulars asked the hotelier if they might not be able to lend a hand during this winter preparation work. This included tasks such as harvesting the last of the apples, raking the autumn leaves, putting the pot plants away for the winter, helping out in the kitchen, and a great many other seasonal chores. Over the years, lists of the help work were compiled and the guests asked on arrival when and where they could make themselves useful and enter their names in the list. A very warm and social atmosphere developed as a result,

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and over the years these guests became more and more firmly integrated in this hotel process. Tasty snacks to keep them all going, the gratitude and appreciation they received for their work and the pleasant feeling of being a part of something of value and importance was a welcome reward for the effort. We still find this a very pleasing and successful example of innovation and especially convincing through its simplicity.

One could, of course, make a crowdsourcing case study out of this, by describing each detail and episode in full, by analyzing all the various facets of the project and by coming up with a whole range of different theoretical references. But we do not intend to do this here. Our aim is for the reader to let this account sink in and take its effect;

with all its simplicity, clarity, and in the knowledge that it all functions simply because someone was prepared to give free reign to the group dynamics of the guests and also provided the framework conditions required for this to flourish.

Years later, Igor Gula wrote his master thesis “Crowdsourcing in the Tourism Industry; Using the Example of Idea Competitions in Tourism Destinations” in Roman’s

“Innovation und Management in Tourism” course at the Salzburg University of Applied Sciences. Igor had worked his way carefully through all the theories and models and brought them all in with outstanding skill in his work. While Igor was presenting his thesis during the finals, Roman had the idea of editing a book with him on the subject.

Dominik, who is also a Professor at the Salzburg University of Applied Sciences, MIT Associate, and a leading expert in the field of mass customization, was also brought in and this is how we ended up working as a trio on the book concept. A few months and numerous workshops later, a suitable framework was developed (contribution–

utilization matrix), which in addition to its theoretical contribution was also structurally determining for the way the book developed. The closely linked thematic issues Open Innovation, Crowdsourcing , and Co-Creation were subsumed and brought into a relationship with each other under the basket term Open Tourism . Ultimately, 36 chapters were identified, selected, and edited for inclusion, and 74 authors worked on them.

As with every book, numerous people have been involved in the working process.

First and foremost we would like to thank the authors for their contributions. It is their knowledge and the high quality of the essays they have written that brings this book to life. Christian Rauscher from Springer adopted the project and helped us to develop the book. He was a constant support throughout and gave us a free hand even at the most difficult times, ensuring that the work could be published as we had intended. Finally, of course, we would like to express our gratitude to our families and loved ones for the endless support and encouragement they have given us.

It is our hope this book will prove to be of value for the scientific community, students, and also for professionals and achieve a widespread echo.

Autumn, 2014 Roman Egger

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Igor Gula

Dominik Walcher

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List of Contributors

Roman Egger

is Professor of Tourism at the Salzburg University of Applied Sciences. He graduated in Communications Sciences and gained his Doctorate from the University of Salzburg, where he specialized in the fields of Information- and Communication Technologies in Tourism. He worked at the Tourism Board of Salzburg as a marketer. Roman is senior researcher and lecturer at the Salzburg University of Applied Sciences at the

department of Innovation and Management in Tourism and divisional head of eTourism.

He has written and coedited 14 books, published a number of articles in books and journals, and is coeditor of the scientific Journal “Zeitschrift für

Tourismuswissenschaft.” He is a Member of the International Federation of Information Technology for Travel and Tourism (IFITT), ÖGAF, DGT, and AIEST.

Igor Gula

is a graduate of a Bachelor’s degree program in tourism business studies of the Management Center Innsbruck and of a Master’s degree program in innovation and management in tourism of the Salzburg University of Applied Sciences. He completed his internship in the department of Marketing New Media at the headquarters of the Casinos Austria in Vienna. Igor wrote his Bachelor’s thesis about the trends of the modern ICTs and their impacts on tourism, focusing on Dynamic Packaging, mTourism, and Social Semantic Web. For his Master’s thesis, he analysed the aspects of Open Innovation and Crowdsourcing in tourism and conducted a web-based ideas

competition in cooperation with the Slovak Tourist Board. Igor is currently in charge of the corporate customer service at the Hotel Zeitgeist Vienna and also studies business administration at the MODUL University in Vienna.

Dominik Walcher

studied Architecture and Management at the University of Stuttgart, the Technical University Munich (TUM), and the University of California at Berkeley. After some years of gaining work experience, he joined Prof. Reichwald’s chair for Management at TUM in 2001, where he was part of Frank Piller’s newly founded Center for Mass Customization and Open Innovation. His doctoral thesis about Customer Integration at

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Adidas was awarded with several prizes. Since June 2006, he is professor for Marketing and Innovation Management at Salzburg University of Applied Sciences/School for Design and Product Management. He extended his field of research to Brand Management, Business Creation, and Sustainability Marketing. He was founder of a start-up company in the field of customizable and eco-intelligent products. Results from his practical experience and academic research are numerously published and part of his teaching and consultancy. Dominik Walcher is visiting

professor at universities in Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. Since May 2010, he is Research Associate at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) directing the LivingLabs’ “Customization 500” initiative.

Philipp Allerstorfer

graduated from the Tourism Management program at IMC University of Applied Sciences in Krems and is currently enrolled in the Web Science program of Johannes Kepler University in Linz. Philipp is frequently attending scientific conferences and is currently researching in the field of virtual currencies. Furthermore, he is employed in the field of e-Tourism and implements e-commerce-projects for national and

international hotel chains and tourism destinations.

Kathrin Parson Bakk

is an innovation researcher at Salzburg Research. She studied sociology at the Karl- Franzens-University in Graz. Before she joined the InnovationLab of Salzburg

Research, she worked on quantitative and qualitative evaluation, quality management, and assurance at the University of Music and Performing Arts Graz. Her research interests include online communities and the application of information and

communication technologies in (open) innovation processes.

Michael Bartl

is CEO for HYVE—the innovation company. Prior to HYVE, Michael worked for the carmaker AUDI in the R&D division. He started his academic career with a Bachelor of Science from the University of Westminster London, a Dipl.-Kfm. from the

University of Munich (LMU), and a PhD from the Otto Beisheim Graduate School (WHU) on the topic of “Customer integration in NPD.” Michael has authored numerous

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articles and papers on the subjects of Co-Creation, Open Innovation, Netnography, Community-based Innovation, and Future Developments in Innovation Management. He has published in leading international journals such as Journal of Product Innovation Management, Electronic Commerce Research Journal, Harvard Business Manager and is research fellow of the Peter Pribilla Foundation. He is the author of the E-Journal

“The Making-of Innovation” ( http://www.makingofinnovation.com ) and a regular speaker and host at innovation and other industry conferences. Since 2011, Michael is as an elected member of the national executive committee of the German Association of Market and Social Research (BVM). In 2012, he was appointed as German senator to the Senat der Wirtschaft which is part of the Global Economic Network.

Volker Bilgram

is Associated Researcher at the Technology & Innovation Management Group of

RWTH Aachen University and Team Lead at HYVE, an Open Innovation company. His academic research interest is on distributed innovation systems, consumer

empowerment, and co-creation and has been published in journals such as the International Journal of Innovation Management, Marketing Review St. Gallen, and Harvard Business Manager. Volker graduated in International Business Law at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg with a focus on New Product Development and Open Innovation.

Paul Blazek

is founder and CEO of the digital agency cyLEDGE Media in Vienna and founder and board member of several start-ups. He teaches social network marketing at the

University of Applied Science in Salzburg and referral marketing at the Lucerne

University of Applied Sciences and Arts, is scientific head of the annual Business Goes Social Media Conference in Austria, founding member of the International Institute on Mass Customization and Personalization (IIMCP), research fellow of the Peter Pribilla Foundation, and is associated to the MIT’s Smart Customization Group.

At cyLEDGE he developed CrowdCity ( www.crowdcity.com ) to generate knowledge about upcoming standards and success factors of crowdsourcing approaches.

www.twitter.com/PaulBlazek

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Kim Boes

is currently a PhD Researcher at the eTourismLab at Bournemouth University, UK, where she writes her thesis about Smart Tourism Destinations: Explore how smartness improves competitiveness in the context of tourism destinations. Kim holds a

Bachelor’s and a Master’s degree in Innovation and Management in Tourism from the University of Applied Sciences Salzburg, Austria. Before joining Bournemouth

University, she was working as a research assistant at the tourism research department at the University of Applied Sciences Salzburg in Austria.

Ulrich Bretschneider

is a senior researcher at the department for Information Systems at University of Kassel, Germany. He received his PhD from the Technische Universität München, Germany, in 2011 with a dissertation about Open Innovation Communities. His

research areas include Open Innovation, Crowdsourcing, and Crowdfunding. His work has been published in several academic journals, such as the Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS), and international conferences, such as the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management or the European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS). In 2013, he has been awarded with the Emerald Citation of Excellence Award for a research paper in the JMIS.

Sabine Brunswicker

is an innovation researcher with a particular interest in open innovation and innovation ecosystems. She is an Associate Professor of Innovation and Director of the Research Center for Open Digital Innovation (RCODI) at Purdue University in West-Lafayette, United States. She is also affiliated with Esade Business School, at Ramon Llul University in Spain, holds a role as Adjunct Professor at the School of Information Systems, Queensland University of Technology (QUT) in Australia, and is a strategic advisor for open innovation at the Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering, Germany. Sabine holds a Master in Engineering and Management Sciences (MSc, dual degree), a Master of Commerce with a Specialization in Marketing & Entrepreneurship, and a PhD in the area of innovation management. Sabine’s general research interests lie in understanding collaborative models of innovation and value creation in today’s global and digital economy. She maintains an active network of industry partners and foundations pioneering open and digital forms of innovation. Further, she closely

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interacts with the European Commission and is a member of the Open Innovation Strategy and Policy Group (OISPG) of DG Connect.

Sandra Bürcher

studied geography and history at the University of Fribourg in Switzerland from which she has a Master’s degree with focus on Sustainable Development. She wrote her Master’s thesis about the reconstruction of decision-making processes in the Nature Park of Binntal. After her studies, she completed an internship in the network of Swiss Parks. She gained more work experience at the Swiss Centre for Mountain Regions and as an assistant at the Institute of Tourism of the University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland. Currently, she is doing her PhD on entrepreneurship in non- metropolitan Swiss regions at the University of Berne.

Francesca Cabiddu

is Assistant Professor in Management in the Faculty of Economics of the University of Cagliari, Italy. Cabiddu’s research interest has focused on strategy management,

dynamic capabilities, customer service, and consumer behavior. She is currently pursuing a long-standing interest in Tourism and Information Technology.

Marut Doctor

has a Master’s degree in Natural Sciences /Geography from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. As a meteorologist and a climatologist, he has been working since 2007 at the Institute of Tourism of the University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland. He has worked on the effects of weather and climate on the economy of a region, the optimization of artificial snow and of the skier flow, and other domains of tourism not linked with meteorology, especially the open innovation processes in

tourism. He participated also in the Interreg project on the adaptation of Alpine tourism to climate change. Now, he works for a good part of his time on the Tourism

Observatory of the Valais. This includes especially tourist frequentation (e.g., hotel overnight data) and the different economic and meteorological factors which influence this frequentation.

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Robert A. Eckhoff

is innovation researcher and consultant at the InnovationLab. He studied social sciences, management, and organizational psychology at Jacobs University Bremen (Germany) and the Free University of Amsterdam (Netherlands). His research interests include creativity, innovation management, team diversity, and diversity training. He advises companies with regard to their innovation management and innovation strategy and has published in journals such as Human Relations, The Journal of Intellectual Capital, and others.

Stefan Etzelstorfer

is student of business economics and law at Johannes Kepler University Linz, Upper Austria, focusing on public management, knowledge management, and business law.

For many years, he volunteered for the Austrian Student Union (ÖH) in Linz and was its head from 2010 until 2011. Currently, he is working on his diploma thesis on

challenges of introducing open government at a local level with a focus on the City of Linz municipality.

Robert C. Ford

is professor emeritus of management at the University of Central Florida. His research and teaching focus is on the management of service organizations. He has authored or coauthored numerous books and publications in both top research and practitioner journals and served as editor of The Academy of Management Executive. He has held numerous offices in his professional organizations including president of the Southern Management Association where he was elected as a Fellow and received its

Distinguished Service Award. He also served as a founding member and Chair of the Accreditation Commission for Programs in Hospitality Administration.

Alexander Fritsch

is an expert in online tourism. In addition to his work as a consultant, coach, and

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speaker, he is a lecturer for “eTourism” at the University of Applied Sciences in Chur, Switzerland.

Johann Füller

holds the chair for Innovation and Entrepreneurship in the Department of Strategic Management, Marketing and Tourism, at the University of Innsbruck. Since his habilitation, he has been a senior lecturer of Marketing at the Innsbruck University School of Management. He is Fellow at the NASA Tournament Lab-Research at Harvard University and founder and CEO of HYVE AG, Europeans leading (open &

user) innovation and community agency. From 2008 to 2010, Johann was a visiting scholar and research affiliate at MIT Sloan School of Management.

Oliver Gajda

co-founded the European Crowdfunding Network and is acting Chairman & Executive Director and is an Executive Committee Member of CF50 Inc., the global think tank on Crowdfunding. As a business consultant, journalist, as well as start-up and buyout manager, Oliver worked with venture capital, microfinance, technology, and social entrepreneurship in commercial, nonprofit, and trade association settings in Europe and the USA. Oliver started his career in the early 1990s in the publishing and market research industries. He holds Masters degrees from Solvay Business School at the Université libre de Bruxelles and from the University of Hamburg; he also studied at SEESS, University College London, in London.

José Luis Galdón

has a Bachelor’s degree in Telecommunications Engineering from the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (Spain) and a Bachelor in Business Administration from the Universidad Europea de Madrid. He has an MSc in Renewable Energies and has

completed a course on business management at the IESE Business School in Barcelona.

He has published articles in international books and journals in the areas of new

technologies, tourism management, and knowledge management. He has taught and done research at universities in South America (Peru and Ecuador).

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Thomas Gegenhuber

is currently a doctoral student and recipient of a fellowship (“DOC-team”) from the Austrian Academy of Sciences at the Institute for Organization and Global Management Studies at Johannes Kepler University, Linz. His research interests include

crowdsourcing, (open) innovation, and organization theory. Furthermore, he is an open government advocate and contributes to such projects in Linz.

Barbara Gligorijevic

has both academic and professional backgrounds in marketing. She holds an MBA in Marketing from the University of Sheffield. Her PhD research in media and

communication and marketing at the Queensland University of Technology was funded by Smart Services Cooperative Research Centre (CRC). In a professional capacity, Barbara has worked as a market research consultant for major international brands in the retailing, finance, and telecom industries. Her research is focused on the use of electronic word-of-mouth marketing on social media platforms, specifically user- created reviews, ratings, and recommendations (across different industries: travel and tourism, consumer electronics, and retailing) and their impact on the purchasing

decision-making process.

Robert Goecke

is professor for information and service management at the faculty of tourism of the University of Applied Sciences Munich since 2006. From 1999 to 2006, he has been cofounder and CEO of segm@—service engineering & management AG which

develops innovative internet-based services. Between 1996 and 1998, he worked as a consultant for major companies and lead a public funded interdisciplinary research project about new services for the twenty-first century. Robert Goecke received a diploma in computer science in 1991 and a doctorate of business administration in 1996 at Technische Universität München.

Frederic Gonzalo

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is passionate about marketing and communications, with over 19 years of experience in the travel and tourism sphere. Early 2012, he launched Gonzo Marketing and works as a strategic marketing consultant, professional speaker, and trainer in the use of new technologies (web, social media, mobile). He writes regularly about e-tourism on his blog fredericgonzalo.com and collaborates to influential sites such as Social Media Today, Business2Community, and ehotelier. In 2013, he was ranked most influential blogger for e-tourism and travel in the province of Quebec (Canada) and second most influential blogger for marketing & social media in the province of Quebec (Canada).

Ulrike Gretzel

is Professor of Tourism at the University of Queensland, Australia. She received her PhD in Communication from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA. Her research interests focus on online consumer behavior, persuasion in online

communication, social media marketing, and issues related to the development, adoption, and use of intelligent systems in tourism. She is Editor-in-Chief of the e- Review of Tourism Research and serves on the editorial boards of several other journals. She also served on the board of IFITT.

Christian Gülpen

is head of the business development division at RWTH Aachen University Technology and Innovation Management Group (TIM Group). He has a background of multiple years in both management and strategy of academic executive education. At TIM Group, he is responsible for the development of new external education programs and

corporate consulting.

Anita Hausen

holds a Doctorate in Public Health from the Center for Social Policy, University of Bremen. She has a variety of research interests which include health services research, especially the quality assurance of healthcare, and workplace quality. Currently, she works as a research associate at the Institute of General Practice, University of Ulm.

Before that, she worked in projects such as PiA (Professionalization of Interactive Work) and Talking Eyes. She studied Public Health at the Free University of Berlin and Health Management at the University of Applied Sciences of Magdeburg-Stendal.

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Isabel Herms

is an employee at the B·A·D GmbH (Munich), a company dealing with occupational health and safety and workplace health promotion. Prior to this, she was employed in various research projects at the Technical University of Munich, Technical University of Dresden, and at Aalen University. Furthermore, she is a freelancer, offering trainings and consulting. She holds a Diploma (2007, German master’s-level degree) from the Technical University of Dresden. Her research and activities focuses on emotion work in human service work and occupational health.

Dennis Hilgers

is professor of Public and Non-profit Management at the Johannes Kepler University Linz. His research focuses on managing innovation and performance in public

administrations. One of the phenomena of his particular interest is open government, the application of open innovation methods for service innovation, and offerings in the public sector. He has been a coordinator on several large-scale project consortia in this field that receive funding from the European Union and the German Science Foundation.

Anne-Mette Hjalager

is professor and research director at the Danish Center for Rural Research, University of Southern Denmark. Her areas of interest are among others local development,

innovation, and labor market issues in tourism. She is involved in transnational

research in the fields of rural wellbeing and ecosystems services and in the exploration of innovation issues in tourism. She is the cofounder of the INNOTOUR platform and the editor-in-chief of Journal of Gastronomy and Tourism.

Hindertje Hoarau

is originally Dutch and since 2009 living and working in Northern Norway. She is a PhD candidate at the Bodø Graduate School of Business at University of Nordland. Her thesis about innovation in Nordic nature-based tourism is part of the research project

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Northern Insights ( www.opplevelserinord.no ). Hindertje got her bachelor in

Environmental Management and Policy from the Radboud University in Nijmegen and her Master in International Development Studies from the Wageningen University and Research Centre (both Dutch Universities). After working as a consultant and project manager in The Netherlands, she continues her Academic career in Norway. Her research interests are organizational change, knowledge, learning, tourism-SME’s, sustainability, and corporate social responsibility.

Zsófia Horváth

holds a Bachelor’s degree in Tourism and Hospitality Management from the Budapest Business School, Hungary. Zsófia is currently finishing her master diploma at the Salzburg University of Applied Sciences in Austria. In her master thesis, she analysed the acceptance of Mobile Marketing in Tourism. In cooperation with the Salzburg State Theatre she developed a mobile application prototype to explore the potential of

mobile marketing on a traditional institution.

Katja Hutter

is Assistant Professor at the Innsbruck University School of Management and a research fellow at Harvard-NASA Tournament Lab at the Institute for Quantitative Social

Science. Katja holds a doctorate degree in Social and Economic Sciences from the University of Innsbruck. Her research interest is in the field of open innovation, especially idea contests and online innovation communities.

Julia Jonas

is research associate and doctoral student at the Chair for Information Systems I—

Innovation & Value Creation at the FAU Erlangen-Nuremberg. She is researching on the integration of internal and external stakeholders in service innovation throughout the innovation process. She graduated from Karlstad University, Sweden, specializing on Service Management and Marketing and looks back at over 4 years of experience as a project manager in an innovation consultancy, where she assisted clients such as Beiersdorf, W.L. Gore or Symrise to plan and conduct open innovation projects.

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Giordano Koch

is currently working on his PhD at the University Hamburg. His research interests are open innovation and co-creation in the public as well as private sector including different forms of citizen participation. Furthermore, he is lecturer at the Johannes Kepler University of Linz (Austria) and an eligible speaker on topics of Open

Government, Open Innovation within Public Administration, and Citizen Participation.

Besides this, Giordano Koch is managing director at HYVE Innovation Community GmbH.

Thomas Kohler

is Associate Professor of Marketing at Hawaii Pacific University and the founder of travel2change. The crowdsourcing platform travel2change is shaped by Thomas’

research on how organizations can use crowdsourcing to create social innovation. His previous research has been published in journals such as the MIS Quarterly,

Technovation, and the Harvard Business Manager.

Benjamin Kreitmeir

works at the crowdsourcing software company innosabi. As a project manager, he is in charge of managing and guiding companies of all sizes through the concept and

application of their open innovation projects and campaigns. He is a Masters graduate of Tourism and Entrepreneurship of the Management Center Innsbruck and holds a Bachelor’s degree in Tourism Management from Munich University of Applied Sciences. Benjamin Kreitmeir wrote his Master’s thesis on the application of open innovation and crowdsourcing in order to activate and support stakeholder

participation in Alpine-Destinations. During his studies, he was working for an Online Marketing Agency, learning how to best utilize the economic possibilities of a

digitalized world.

Yohei Kurata

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is an associate professor at the Department of Tourism Science, School of Urban

Environmental Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University since 2010. He studied spatial information science and engineering at the University of Maine, USA, and got PhD there in 2007. His primary research interest is the use of geo-spatial information technologies in the tourism domain, especially for enriching the experience of self-guided travellers.

Sascha Langner

is Assistant Professor of Marketing and Management at the Leibniz University of Hannover. His main research fields are Online Marketing, Consumer Behavior, and Neuroeconomics.

Markus Lassnig

is head of the competence field e-tourism ( http://etourism.salzburgresearch.at ) and senior researcher at the InnovationLab at Salzburg Research. His scientific focus is on different aspects of internet economics, innovation management, business management, and strategy—especially in the tourism and leisure industries. In these fields, he is also teaching at Universities of Applied Sciences in Austria and Germany. Markus Lassnig studied communication research and political science at the University of Salzburg. He holds a degree in the field of media economics of audiovisual mass media and a PhD in the field of internet economics.

Jan Marco Leimeister

joined St. Gallen University in 2012 as a professor at the Institute of Information Management (IWI HSG) and is also the Chair of Information Systems at Kassel University (Germany) since 2008. His research focuses on Service Engineering, Collaboration Engineering, IT Innovations, and Technology Management. He runs several research groups, and his research projects are funded by European Union, German Ministries, and DFG. Jan Marco Leimeister authored and/or edited more than 13 books as well as more than 300 scientific publications. His research has been published in a broad range of Journals such as Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS) or Information Systems Journal (ISJ). In addition, Jan Marco Leimeister serves on the editorial board of the European Journal of Information

Systems (EJIS), is a Senior Editor of the Journal of Information Technology (JIT), and

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is regularly member of programme committees of international conferences.

Janne J. Liburd

is a Doctor in Philosophy, Associate Professor, and research director of the Centre for Tourism, Innovation and Culture, University of Southern Denmark. She is an

anthropologist, and her research interests are in the fields of higher education and sustainable tourism development. She has published on epistemology, Open Innovation and Web 2.0, tourism education, quality of life, national park development, heritage tourism, tourism crisis communication, NGOs and the being of the university. Dr.

Liburd has conducted a number of research projects relating to competence

development for tourism practitioners and tourism educators. She is the cofounder of the INNOTOUR platform and serves on several editorial boards. Dr. Liburd is the past Chair of the B.E.S.T. Education Network (2005–2010).

Kurt Luger

is Professor of Transcultural communication at the Department of Communication, Salzburg University, Chairman of EcoHimal, and UNESCO Chair of Cultural Heritage.

Recent publications include: Cultural Heritage and Tourism (ed. with Karlheinz Woehler, 2010); World Heritage and Tourism (ed. with Karlheinz Woehler, 2007);

Searching for the place of eternal happiness — Culture, tourism and development in the Himalayas (2007).

Tsz-Wai Lui

is Assistant Professor at the International College at Ming Chuan University, Taiwan.

Her research interests include customer service systems and virtual worlds. Her research has been published by the Center of Hospitality Research (CHR) at Cornell and in European Journal of Information Systems, The DATABASE for Advances in Information Systems, and Annals of Tourism Research.

Mark Markus

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is a senior researcher at the InnovationLab, a socioeconomic department at Salzburg Research, focusing on consulting and research in the front end of innovation

management. He supports companies to identify and develop product and process innovations and teaches entrepreneurship and innovation at the University of Applied Sciences. Mark Markus has worked with companies like Atomic, KTM, ÖAMTC. He holds a doctorate in communication science at the University of Salzburg and has completed the education in innovation management at Management Centre Innsbruck, concentrating especially on how companies can generate innovations with users and customers.

Jennifer Menzel

is Product Developer at the Online Hotel Search trivago GmbH. Prior to her current position, she graduated from the Management Center Innsbruck with a Master’s degree in Entrepreneurship & Tourism. During her studies, she spent three semesters abroad studying the field of tourism in Switzerland, Costa Rica, and South Africa. Her Master thesis about Crowdsourcing as a tool for innovation in the hotel industry was one of the first scientific works researching the topic for small- and medium-sized hotels. It was awarded with the Austrian prize for tourism research in 2011.

Katsutoshi Murakami

is a senior consultant and a general manager at Nomura Research Institute, Ltd in Japan.

He received his Bachelor’s degree in Law from Keio University and an MBA degree from the University of Michigan. He is a management consultant who has expertise in business strategy, innovation, and information technology. His consultation approach is providing hands-on solutions to implementing strategies and innovation concepts using IT. He has extensive consultation experience in a wide range of industries including travel agencies, global hotel chains, and theme parks.

Mihir Ignatius Nayak

attended the prestigious Salzburg Tourism School in Bad Hofgastein, where he

graduated with Excellence. After completing his BA (Hons) at the University of Derby UK, he did his Masters in Innovation & Management in Tourism at the Salzburg

University of Applied Sciences where Prof. Dr. Roman Egger was one of his

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Professors. Mihir is currently pursuing his PhD in UNESCO Heritage Communication and Tourism at the University of Salzburg, Austria with Prof. Dr. Kurt Luger as his PhD Supervisor. Mihir is currently a Visiting Lecturer at the elite IUBH Tourism University in Bavaria and also runs his own Heritage Hotel in Goa’s Heritage Zone of Fontainhas.

Christian Papsdorf

is a lecturer at the Department of Sociology at the Chemnitz University of Technology.

His research activities are focused on Internet sociology, industrial sociology,

communications, and media sociology. In 2012, he was awarded a doctoral degree for his dissertation entitled “Internet and Society. On the relation between Online and Offline against the background of mediated communication.”

Ignacio Gil Pechuán

is a Full Professor in the Business Organisation Department at the Universitat

Politecnica de Valencia (Spain). He has a PhD in Computing. He also has Bachelor degrees in Business Administration, Library Science, and Market Research. He has an MSc in Information Technology Systems, from the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (Spain), and has completed a business management programme at IESE Business

School (UNAV). He has published articles in international books and journals, such as the Annals of Tourism Research, Tourism Management, the International Journal of Technology Management, the Journal of Knowledge Management, Small Business Economics, Management Decision, and The Service Industries Journal.

William P. Perry

is a senior hotel executive and Global Head of Hotel Asset Management for Cii Hotels

& Resorts based in Johannesburg, South Africa. William’s career spans more than two decades with major hotel brands including Ritz-Carlton, Marriott, Westin, Hilton, Courtyard, Hampton Inn & Suites, The St. Regis, and Radisson. His experience

includes hotel operations, sales and marketing, revenue management, development, and asset management. William holds a BA from Stetson University, an MBA from Georgia College & State University, and an MHR degree from Rollins College. He is a member of Skal International and the Chaine des Rotisseurs.

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Mike Peters

is Associate Professor at the Management Center Innsbruck, MCI Tourism. After finalizing his apprenticeship, he gained working experience in the hotel industry in Germany before he was studying social sciences at the Universities of Regensburg (Germany) and Innsbruck (Austria). He holds a doctoral degree and a professorship in the field of business management and published in well-known tourism journals.

Gabriele Piccoli

after earning tenure at the School of Hotel Administration at Cornell University Gabriele Piccoli is now Associate Professor at the University of Pavia. His research expertise is in strategic IS and the use of IT to support customer service in the

hospitality and tourism sector. His research has appeared in MIS Quarterly, The Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, Harvard Business Review, Decision Sciences Journal, as well as other academic and applied journals.

Birgit Pikkemaat

is Assistant Professor and founder of ifit—the Institute of Innovative Tourism, a

research and consulting initiative focusing on the analysis of product development and innovation processes in tourism. Her academic work was published in a number of acquainted journals and covers empirical insights in small tourism business and destination innovation processes.

Frank T. Piller

is a Professor of management and head of the Technology and Innovation Management Group (TIM Group) at RWTH Aachen University. After receiving his doctorate about production management, he habilitated about “Innovation and Value Co-Creation” at Technische Universität München (TUM). After that he was a research fellow at MIT Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, USA, where he is still head of the “Smart Customization Group.”

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Christiane Rau

is Professor of Innovation Management at the Department for Innovation & Product Management (IPM) of the University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria. Her research focuses on organizational behavior in innovation processes and in particular on

opportunities and challenges at the boundary between external and internal project partners. Her work has been presented at various scientific conferences and has been published in academic journals, such as R&D Management and Technology Analysis and Strategic Management. She did her PhD at the University Erlangen, Chair of Innovation and Value Creation, and has a background in industrial engineering.

Brendan M. Richard

is a doctoral student at the University of Central Florida enrolled in the Methodology, Measurement, and Analysis program. He has taught several courses within the field of management at the college level including: strategic management, conflict resolutions and negotiations, human resources, and business ethics. He has authored or co-authored book chapters and journal publications in the fields of crowdsourcing, hospitality management, mentoring, and educational leadership. His research focus is on open innovation and crowdsourcing and its applications in the fields of management and hospitality management.

Kerstin Rieder

is Professor for Health Sciences and Social Sciences at Aalen University, Department Health Care Management, Germany. Prior to this she was a professor at the University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland. She holds a Diploma (1992, German master’s-level degree) and Doctorate (1998) from the Technical University of Berlin.

Her research focuses on the psychology and sociology of interactive service work, occupational health, and the working customer. She is a cofounder and active member of the initiative Social Science Service Research (3sR).

Petra Ringeisen

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received a diploma in business administration, French and Spanish philology at the University of Mannheim, and a doctorate of business administration in 2011 at the University of Kassel. She is working for DB Rent since 2012.

Digna Roeffen

works as a marketing controller at Swarovski in Zürich, Switzerland. She holds a degree in business administration from the University of Innsbruck School of Management. Digna specialized in controlling as well as service management and tourism. Her field of interest is especially within customer co-creation and its implications on the hospitality industry.

Emre Ronay

started his career in the tourism industry in 2007. He graduated with a distinction award and received his Bachelor’s degree in Tourism Management from the Dokuz Eylul University, a major university in Turkey. He continued his education at the Salzburg University of Applied Sciences in Austria, where he received scholarships for his studies. Since 2013, he holds a Master’s degree in Innovation and Management in Tourism. Furthermore, he published several scientific articles and gave presentations at international conferences. Currently, he pursues his career in the tourism industry in Zurich, Switzerland.

Marc Schnyder

holds a PhD in Economics of the University of Fribourg (Switzerland) and is a full-time professor since 2008 at the University of Applied Sciences of Western

Switzerland/Valais (HES-SO Valais) in the field of tourism. He is also a Senior Researcher at the Institute of Tourism in Sierre. After a 1-year internship at the Swiss National Bank in Zurich, he worked as a researcher for the “Private Hochschule Wirtschaft” in Berne. His current research interests are in the areas of tourism

innovation processes, international tourism, tourism policy, and regional economics.

Ursula Scholl-Grissemann

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is assistant professor at the Department of Strategic Management, Marketing, and Tourism at the University of Innsbruck School of Management. Ursula’s primary

research interest is in customer co-creation practices and their effects on financial and non-financial firm performance.

Marco Schröder

works as a research assistant at the University of Augsburg. He studied Sociology at the University of Augsburg and Educational Science at the University of Education in

Schwäbisch Gmünd. His research focuses on occupational choice and technical and economic education.

Fiona Schweitzer

is Professor of Marketing and Market Research at the Department for Innovation &

Product Management (IPM) of the University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria. Her academic research focuses on open innovation, customer integration into the innovation process, the front end of innovation, smart products, and technology acceptance. She has won three best paper awards and has presented and published her work at various scientific conferences and in academic journals, such as the International Journal of Innovation Management and Research Technology Management. She has a background of product management in profit and nonprofit organizations.

Marianna Sigala

is Associate Professor at the University of the Aegean, Greece. Prior to her current position, she lectured at the Universities of Strathclyde and Westminster in the UK. She also has professional hospitality industry experience. Her interests include service management, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in tourism and

hospitality, and e-learning. Her work has been published in several academic journals, books, and international conferences. She is currently the editor of the journal

Managing Service Quality and the Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Cases. She is a past President of EuroCHRIE and has served on the Board of Directors of I-CHRIE, IFITT, and HeAIS.

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Holger Sigmund

works as a tourism consultant and coach. In addition, he is involved in his own travel business as an incoming and marketing expert.

Fernando José Garrigós Simón

has a PhD in Management. He is an Associate Professor in the Business Organisation Department at the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (Spain). He has an MSc in Tourism Management and Planning from Bournemouth University. He has a Degree in Economics from the University of Valencia. He has taught and done research at

universities in France, the USA, the UK, Australia, Singapore, and Thailand. His

primary areas of research include tourism management and knowledge management. He has published articles in international books and journals, such as the Annals of

Tourism Research, Tourism Management, the International Journal of Technology Management, the Journal of Knowledge Management, Small Business Economics, Management Decision, and The Service Industries Journal.

Dorothée Stadler

is a Senior Project Manager at HYVE Innovation Research GmbH. She supports clients such as W.L. Gore & Associates, Beiersdorf, and Procter & Gamble GmbH in various open innovation and market research projects. She holds a graduate degree in business administration from Ludwig-Maximilians Universität in Munich, majoring in “Market Oriented Management,” “Strategic Management,” and “Cross-Cultural

Communication.” Over the course of her studies, part of which she spent as a visiting student at Saint Mary’s University in Halifax (Canada), Dorothée worked on several different projects in consumer research, applying both qualitative and quantitative techniques. In her thesis, she analyzed consumers’ perception of different nutritional food labelling systems in Germany. Before joining HYVE, Dorothée worked at Happy Thinking People, a marketing research company.

Daniel Stieger

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is vice-president of travel2change and responsible for IT operations. He received his PhD in business administration at the Innsbruck University School of Management. He holds a Master’s degree in economics and a degree in engineering. His previous research has been published in journals such as the Marketing Science, California Management Review, and the Harvard Business Manager.

Anna Stribl

has recently completed her bachelor’s degrees in Slavic Studies and Management &

Economics at the University of Innsbruck, Austria, where her thesis examined the potential of crowdsourcing for business model innovation in volunteer travel. Anna’s interest in volunteers and tourism draws upon her experience working as a volunteer traveller for a nature reserve on the Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia.

Nayeli Tusche

In order to explore and research consumers, their behavior, attitudes, as well as their needs and motives, Nayeli Tusche (M.Sc.) combines online methods (e.g., social media and online community analyses) as well as offline research techniques (e.g., qualitative interviews and ethnographic research). Particularly in the context of international

projects, Nayeli draws upon her international background and sophisticated language skills (five languages), which she constantly developed during her former international tennis career and various places of residence around the world.

Conny Weber

is a project manager at ISN since 2007. She has conducted various strategy and innovation projects both in research and industry. She holds a degree in information science from Saarland University (Germany) and a PhD in business studies from Karl- Franzens University Graz (Austria). Her work and research topics are mainly related to innovative information systems supporting inter-organizational collaboration, realizing virtual factories, and enhancing productivity of knowledge work.

Klaus-Peter Wiedmann

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is a Full Chaired Professor of Marketing and Management and the Director of the Institute of Marketing and Management at the Leibniz University Hannover, Germany.

He is also the German Representative of the Reputation Institute, New York et al., Deputy Chair of the Academy of Global Business Advancement (AGBA), and as a Visiting Professor at the Henley Business School faculty member of the University of Reading, UK. Moreover, Professor Wiedmann has many years of experience as a management consultant and top management coach and takes a leading position in

different business organizations as well as public private partnerships—e.g., Chairman of the BDTEU-TIDAF (Union of European Turkish Entrepreneurs) and Chairman of WOB AG (No.1 Agency for B2B Brand Management in Germany).

Reinhard Willfort

is educated as a communication engineer by Siemens Austria. After finishing his studies in Telematics and Economy at Graz University of Technology (TUG), he worked as a quality manager at Spengle. In 1997, he took up the career of an Assistant professor at the Institute of Industrial Economics and Management at the Technical University Graz.

Since 2000, he holds his PhD and is managing director of the ISN—Innovation Service Network in Austria; Dr. Willfort has been working in numerous research and industrial projects; he holds several publications and is lecturer at different universities in

Austria. He is an innovation expert, entrepreneur, and funder of several start-ups and open innovation and crowdfunding initiatives.

Kyung-Hyan Yoo

is an Assistant Professor of Communication at William Paterson University in the United States. She received her PhD in Tourism from Texas A&M University, USA, focusing on Information Technology & Tourism. Her current research interests include electronic word-of-mouth, online trust, social media communication, online tourist information search, and tourist decision-making.

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Part I

Theoretical Fundamentals and Concepts

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Roman Egger, Igor Gula and Dominik Walcher (eds.), Open Tourism, Tourism on the Verge, DOI 10.1007/978-3- 642-54089-9_1

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(1) (2)

Towards a Holistic Framework of Open Tourism

Roman Egger

¹

, Igor Gula

²

and Dominik Walcher

¹

Salzburg University of Applied Science, Salzburg, Austria MODUL University Vienna, Wien, Austria

Roman Egger (Corresponding author) Email: roman.egger@salzburg.ac.at Igor Gula

Email: igor.gula@chello.at Dominik Walcher

Email: dominik.walcher@salzburg.ac.at

Keywords Open tourism – Open innovation – Crowdsourcing – Co-creation – ICT – Tourism – Hospitality – Destinations – Contribution-utilization-matrix

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1 Challenges for the Tourism Industry

The tourism industry is one of the biggest industries and its markets are highly saturated, with constantly falling profit margins on the one hand, and fast changing needs and customer demands on the other (Lohmann, 2004; Witt, Brooke, & Buckley, 2013). It seems that the growth of the industry has reached its environmental, social and economic limits, where boundaries can no longer be expanded. Products and services in tourism are becoming more and more similar and exchangeable. The tourism industry is predominantly organized in a traditional way. The main part of tourism companies are small and medium-sized (family) enterprises (Buhalis, 1998). Tradition,

authenticity and adhering to time-tested principles are on the one hand, appreciated by most guests, while the risk of missing a timely adaption to far-ranging technological and societal transformations can be observed on the other. New approaches are needed to guarantee the survival of companies. The development of ICTs (Information and

Communication Technologies), especially the Internet with its revolutionary impact on the value creation of companies, has resulted in an enormous increase on literature about how economy and business have to be managed in view of a global paradigm shift (Reichwald & Piller, 2009). Many of these publications focus on management, marketing and innovation in general, or on particular branches, such as IT or product management, while the tourism industry so far has been addressed insufficiently. Open Innovation, Crowdsourcing and Co-Creation have become the most researched and discussed innovation topics since their introduction by Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2000), Chesbrough (2003) and Howe (2006a). The fundamental considerations of integrating customers into corporate processes have attracted a lot of attention among academics and practitioners (Tapscott & Williams, 2010; Zhao & Zhu, 2014). The traditional conception of innovation management is based upon a goods-dominant logic, that focuses on the developing, producing and selling of products (Vargo & Lusch, 2004). With the rise of the software industry in the 1980s, theories and models were first applied to intangible products and subsequently to the service sector—giving rise to the service-dominant logic.

In the scientific literature, it is widely recognised that service innovations

(especially in tourism) have been handled with kid gloves. One of the first researchers who examined the use of Open Innovation , Crowdsourcing and Co-Creation within the hospitality industry was Menzel (2011). Later, the studies of Doctor, Schnyder, and Stumm (2011), Hjalager and Nordin (2011) and Faullant, Krajger, and Zanker (2012) focusing on User-driven-Innovation and on identification of innovative users in tourism were published. Schemann (2012) concentrated on the relevance of these concepts in the cruise industry. In the tourism industry , the opening of corporate boundaries to accommodate external input is not limited to innovation process es but also comprises of other important functions, such as marketing, communication and the execution of services. The literature focusing on Co-Creation in tourism mainly discusses the

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generation of personalized customer experiences in services (Morgan, Lugosi, &

Ritchie, 2010; Scott, Laws, & Boksberger, 2010; Binkhorst & Den Dekker, 2009).

According to Rifkin (2014), Open Innovation , Crowdsourcing and Co-Creation are only part of a much larger social change and the beginning of a completely new

economy. A fundamental principle of our economic system is to achieve maximum productivity and to reduce marginal costs. Marginal costs are the costs of producing an additional unit of a good or service, after fixed costs have been absorbed. To produce the first cinematic travel report, several thousands or millions of dollars have to be spent on infrastructure, personnel, equipment etc. The costs of copying and duplicating the movie are comparatively marginal. The goal of a company will always be to lower the production costs as much as possible, to generate higher profits or to grant price reductions in order to remain competitive. The recent developments in the field of ICTs can be seen as drivers of economies of scale and scope, resulting in a progressive reduction of marginal costs. The Internet allows a myriad of small players to unite within decentralized peer-to-peer networks, the so-called “Collaborative Commons”.

These Collaborative Commons with their ability to reduce marginal costs, have already transformed the information goods industry, as consumers began to produce and share music, videos and knowledge for free. Toffler (1990) describes these people as

“prosumers”, being producer and consumer at the same time. The desire of consumers to play an active role in the creation of products and services in cooperation with companies has increased over the past years (Neuhofer, Buhalis, & Ladkin, 2013). In order to stay competitive, tourism companies have to handle these empowered

customers strategically and apply the new technologies fruitfully (Neuhofer, Buhalis, &

Ladkin, 2014). Outsourcing business tasks to customers is a double-edged sword. It can be very enhancing on the one hand for users to produce and share content among

themselves, in other words, to derive user-generated-content, peer-to-peer-production, and share economy. At the same time, these constitute potent challenges to the whole industry. On social media platforms like Facebook , Tripadvisor and Youtube , a steadily rising number of documented touristic experiences, ratings and

recommendations, are continually published in an independent fashion by customers, without control from the affected destinations and service providers. The information seeking and decision making behaviour of modern customers is strongly influenced by these publications (Xiang & Gretzel, 2010). The provision of services such as renting out private rooms or offering car service to visitors, can easily be offered online and therefore, disrupts traditional processes in the tourism industry . The main

transformations and challenges for the tourism industry triggered by new technologies can be summarized as follows:

Opening of operational boundaries (principle view):

The (online) provision and consumption of corporate or individual offers is mostly non-excludable and non-rivalrous as well as independent of time and

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space. Keywords: Public good/Any time, any place Opening of economic boundaries (cost view):

Digital goods produced by companies or individuals are duplicated and distributed at near zero marginal costs, providing more and more offers (almost) for free, Keywords: Share economy /Free economy

Opening of institutional boundaries (ability view):

Companies on the one hand are able to integrate external sources into their value creation , individuals on the other can easily form affiliations with each other, substituting traditional business models. Keywords: Customer integration/

Peer-to-peer production.

Opening of behavioural boundaries ( motivation view):

Companies and individuals are willing to build partnerships for exchanging and sharing resources. Keywords: Co-Creation / Prosumer

The transforming processes are continuously expanding, thus affecting tourism and all other industries. The omnipresent modifications and paradigm shifts can therefore be seen as a “Third Industrial Revolution ” (Rifkin, 2014).

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2 Open Innovation , Crowdsourcing and Co-Creation

Open Tourism describes different manifestations of “opening-movements” in the

tourism industry . Open Innovation , Crowdsourcing and Co-Creation , the most popular and well-researched occurrences, are explained in more detail in the following

passages. Each of these terms share the common basis of bringing company’s external resources into the formerly autonomous value creation process of the company.

The Open Innovation approach was firstly defined and described by Henry Chesbrough (2003). He defines Open Innovation as a new paradigm in contrast to the so-called Closed Innovation, described by Schumpeter (Schumpeter, 2006; Sobczak &

Groß, 2010):

Open Innovation is a paradigm that assumes that firms can and should use external ideas as well as internal ideas, and internal and external paths to market, as the firms look to advance their technology. (Chesbrough, 2003: XXIV)

The basic requirement for Open Innovation is “opening up the innovation process ” (Huizingh, 2011: 1). Moreover, companies should cooperate with their periphery (e.g.

universities, researchers and consultants) and exploit the knowledge and experience of their customers (Reichwald & Piller, 2009). Most often, Open Innovation describes the integration of consumers and users, or even competitors, to make use of the wisdom of crowds (Surowiecki, 2005). According to the new paradigm of interactive value creation , companies should not only listen to their customers, but also integrate them (Reichwald & Piller, 2009). Von Hippel (1988) established the Lead-User concept, which can be seen as a prime example of customer integration . Later on, he considered the growing number of user innovations and corporate opening processes as

“Democratizing Innovation” (Von Hippel, 2005). Von Hippel describes users and communities as “increasingly able to innovate for themselves” (2005: 1), a

phenomenon that flourishes “as a result of the steadily improving quality computer software and hardware” (2005: 13). The following Fig. 1 displays the differences between a Closed and Open Innovation process .

Open Innovation, Crowdsourcing and Co-Creation Challenging the Tourism Industry

Tourism on the Verge

Open Tourism

Open Innovation, Crowdsourcing and Co-Creation Challenging the Tourism Industry

1st ed. 2016

Preamble and Acknowledgements

Contents

List of Contributors

Part I

Theoretical Fundamentals and Concepts

Towards a Holistic Framework of Open Tourism

Roman Egger

, Igor Gula

and Dominik Walcher

1 Challenges for the Tourism Industry

2 Open Innovation , Crowdsourcing and Co-Creation