A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Attainment of the Sarjana Sastra Degree in English Language and Literature
By
Wahyu Panca Handayani 10211141014
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE STUDY PROGRAM ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND ARTS YOGYAKARTA STATE UNIVERSITY
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“Two roads diverged in a wood, and I –
I took the one less traveled by,
Frost-vi
I dedicate this thesis to every person who has
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miracle, I am able to finish writing this thesis. This thesis writing would have
never been completed without some help from many people. Thus, I would like to
express my deep and sincere gratitude to:
1. Bapak Sugi Iswalono, M.A., as my first consultant, and Ibu Nandy Intan Kurnia, M.Hum, as my second consultant, for their patience, support,
guidance, knowledge, and support;
2. all lecturers of English Literature study program for their valuable and
priceless knowledge in their lectures and also the staff for their support
and valuable help;
3. my beloved parents for their endless love, prayer, and support;
4. Mbak Sari, Mas Yusni, Mas Uwik, Mbak Mila, Mas Adek, Mbak Eva, Hafsi, Akbar, Danil, Fatika, and Inaz for being my ‘home’;
5. Takumi Fujisaki for arousing my courage and inspiring me to move;
6. my dearest best friends: Hilya, Munir, Sabar, Arif, Fazri, Dani, and Astri
for the boundless friendship we make;
7. my precious classmates in Sasing A 2010: Budi, Amir, Tony, Galant, Juani, Fifin, Aci, Sasan, Riska, Erys, Ninda, Tion, Siska, and Tsasa for
every impressive moment we share together, and in Literature Class 2010:
Dita, Agung, Winda, Tria, Puput, Catur, and others for every interesting
discussion we have;
8. all members of SAFEL UNY, especially Heni, Roni, Tika, Roro, Astika,
Marlin, Zidni, Sapta, Endah, and Atia, for every experience, laughter, tear,
and lesson we get through together;
9. all people whom I cannot mention one by one and who have been there in
my past or in my present for entering my life and helping me find a way to
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Yogyakarta, October 6th, 2016
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CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION... 1
A. Background of the Study... 1
B. Focus of the Research... 4
C. Formulation of the Research ... 6
D. Objective of the Research... 6
E. Significance of the Research... 7
CHAPTER II : LITERATURE REVIEW... 8
A.Theoritical Background... 8
1. Literature Definition and Abram’s Critical Theory... 8
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D.Techniques of Data Collection ... 40
E. Techniques of Data Analysis... 40
F. Trustworthiness... 41
CHAPTER IV : FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS... 42
A. The Employment of Figurative Language in “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising”... 42
1. Metaphor ... B. The Significances of Figurative Language in “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising” ... 57
1. To Evoke Imagination ... 2. To Reinforce the Speakers’ Love Expression ... 3. To Make the Love Expression Unforgettable ... 57 61 63 C.The Way Donne Employs Figurative Language to Make the Expression of the Speakers’ Love in “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising” Differ from the Love of Common People ... 65
1. Presenting Analogies of Their Love ... 2. Dramatizing the Love Expression ... 66 71 CHAPTER V : CONCLUSIONS... 76
A. Conclusions... 76
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Appendix 3. “The Sun Rising” poem ... 99
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Wahyu Panca Handayani 10211141014
Abstract
This research aims to investigate the love expression differences between the common people and the speakers of “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and
“The Sun Rising” through the employment of figurative language. The objectives
of this research are 1) to identify kinds of figurative language employed by John
Donne in his “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising”, 2) to
investigate the significances of figurative language employment in John Donne’s
“A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising”, and 3) to find out
the way he employs figurative language to make the expression of the speakers’
love in “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising” becomes
different from the love of common people.
This research applied qualitative method. The textual analysis method was used to analyze the data. The main data of this research were words, phrases, sentences related to the employment of figurative language in John Donne’s “A
Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising”. The key instrument of
this research was the researcher herself. The researcher employed some steps during the data collection, i.e. reading, note-making, interpreting, and categorizing. In conducting the data analysis, the researcher passed some steps, namely identifying, classifying, re-reading, and making interpretation. To gain data trustworthiness, the researcher asked her colleges to do triangulations in order to check the data.
The results of this research showed that there were seven types of figurative language found in the “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun
Rising”. Those types of figurative language were personification, metaphor,
simile, metonymy, synecdoche, apostrophe, and hyperbole. After categorizing and interpreting the data, the researcher concluded that each type of figurative language was significance to evoke the readers’ imagination, to reinforce the love, and to make the love expression unforgettable. The way the speakers made their love become superior to common people’s love in these two poems was by comparing their love through analogies and dramatizations. They employed figurative language to make vivid and familiar analogies and dramatization in their love expressions.
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Love is a large concept with many qualities of experience. Love can mean an
experience of affection, adoration, care, compassion, and empathy. In addition,
the scope of love experiences itself is wide and unlimited. Everybody in all ages
and conditions can feel this kind of emotion. It can emerge between human and
God, human and nature, human and society, or even human and human. However,
love, in general term, is commonly interpreted as a special and strong sensual
attraction between two people, normally in different genders. These two people
feel a certain “desire to be intimate” with each other, which is different from their
fondness toward family or friends (Chapman, 2004: 6). This kind of feeling is the
one that most people need and pursue during their life.
Furthermore, most people believe that love can give them encouraging power
that makes them feel livelier. Because of love, they become more eager to do and
accomplish certain things, including the things they are usually afraid of. In the
same line, love makes life become more colorful and rhythmical. It is capable to
turn people’s emotion, making them feel cheerful, missing, miserable, mad, upset,
and jealous at the same time. Therefore, most people assume love as the basic
emotional need to complete their life.
Since love becomes the encouraging power and basic emotional need for most
people, both men and women are enthusiastic when talking about this feeling
every time and everywhere. They tend to share and express their love vigorously.
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express their love immediately toward the one whom they love. Some others
prefer expressing their love through a certain medium.
Poem is an example of written media that is commonly used to express love.
The poem writers, known as poets, tend to talk about love in their poems through
the complex words and symbols. They select uncommon words and organize them
with the help of some intrinsic elements to make the love in their poems more
beautiful and complex (Frederik, 1988: 18). For example, Robert Burns
hyperbolizes his love in his “A Red, Red Rose” by saying “till a’ the seas gang
dry, my dear, / And the rocks melt wi’ sun!” to imply that his love to his lover will
never fade away. The uncommon use of words in this poem expresses the love in
more intense way so that it becomes stronger and deeper than what the poet
expects it to be.
The organized and selected words in love poems will also invite the readers to
experience the feeling of love in it. Perrine (1977: 4) states that poems are written
to broaden, widen, and deepen the readers’ feeling and understanding. The
understanding of the poems can be obtained through the participation of the
readers in the experience that is portrayed in the poems. After fully reading and
participating in the love experience of poems, the readers are able to deepen their
awareness toward their own love feeling or toward the love feeling that they never
acquaint before.
However, the readers will not be aware of the love experience that is
expressed in the poems unless the words in the poems are vivid. To make the love
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stimulate the imagination of the readers toward the love. Even, as stated by
Frederik (1988: 21), a good poet must invent “new figurative statements”. The
figurative language is significant to convey the love in the poems. This element
helps the readers to sharpen and deepen their understanding and imagination of
the love that is meant in the poems.
A poet who tends to invent some innovation in using figurative language is
John Donne. He has written many complex poems, some of which express the
love of the speakers. Two of his most well-known love poems are “A Valediction:
Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising”. Both poems express the deep love
of the poems’ speaker that is different from the love of common people. The
speaker of “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning”, for example, ensures his lover
and the readers that their love is inseparable by giving some analogized
illustrations. The speaker compares himself and his lover to twin compasses to
portray their temporary separation. The same way is also applied by the speaker of
“The Sun Rising” who compares his lover to all states and himself to all princes to
indicate how powerful his love is.
Therefore, the researcher is willing to conduct a research related to John
Donne’s “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising”. The topic
in which the researcher is interested to analyze is John Donne’s style in using
figurative language to express the speakers’ love. The researcher will also explore
the research object by analyzing how the figurative language can make the
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To analyze the topic, the researcher uses objective theory. Objective theory is
one of four critical theories proposed by M.H. Abrams. This theory emphasizes
the importance of intrinsic elements in creating the meaning of a literary work.
Thus, here, the researcher uses objective theory to prove how love of the speakers
is depicted to be more powerful than the love of common people through the
employment of figurative language.
B. Focus of the Research
Love cannot be separated from human’s life. Almost every single person
must have experienced this feeling. However, the love experience that is felt by
every person might not always be similar. The way they express their love is also
varied. The feeling of love can also be expressed through a written expression
medium such as poetry. Love that is expressed in poems usually is more
memorable since it is expressed in complex way. The love expression in poems
gives a deep thought and sense to allow the readers to explore it. The sensuous
love that the readers finally understand from the poems may stay longer in their
heart and mind since they feel involved in that love. John Donne’s “A
Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising” are two examples of
poems that talk about love expression felt by the speakers in sensuous language.
To understand the entire expression in these two poems, there are three
aspects that can be analysed. The first problem is the use of versification. It refers
to the use of rhythms, metrics, rhymes, and stanzaic forms in the poems.
Versification is a significant element in poetry since it influences the beauty and
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feeling in the poems. The second problem identified is the biography of the poet.
A poem must have a particular relation to the life of the poet. Therefore, to
understand the love experience in these poems, an analysis toward the John
Donne’s personal life needs to be conducted. The third problem is the use of
figurative language. Figurative language is often employed in poems to stimulate
the imagination of the readers about the topic that is discussed in the poems.
Through the figurative language, the readers can imagine and feel the love
expressed in the poems.
Considering the accessibility of the researcher, it is impossible for the
researcher to analyse the entire problems. Therefore, the researcher focuses the
research only on the last problem, i.e. the use of figurative language. The
researcher is going to identify and explain the types of figurative language that are
employed in these two poems. After identifying the kinds of figurative language
in Donne’s “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising”, the
researcher will also observe how the speakers in those two poems express their
love toward their lovers. She is going to examine the significance of the figurative
language employment to the speakers’ love expression. Since the employment of
figurative language can define the different love expression, the researcher also
aims to compare the love expression that is felt by the speakers and common
people.
To achieve the wholesome understanding, the researcher employs objective
theory proposed by Abrams. The theory emphasizes the independence of a literary
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“autonomous object”. It is isolated from the influence of the author, universe, and
audience. Therefore, to acquire the understanding of the work, the researcher only
needs to analyse the work.
C. Formulation of the Problems
Based on the background and the focus of the study, the researcher formulates
the problems of this study into three problems:
1. What types of figurative language employed by Donne in “A Valediction:
Forbidding Mourning”and “The Sun Rising”?
2. What are the significances of the figurative language employment in Donne’s
“A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising” in expressing
the love?
3. How does the poet employ the figurative language to make the love of the
speakers in “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising”
different from the love of the common people?
D. Objectives of the Research
According to the formulation of the problems, the objectives of this study are:
1. to find out the types of figurative language employed by Donne in “A
Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising”,
2. to explain the significances of the figurative language employment to express
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3. to explain the way the poet employs the figurative language to make the love
of the speakers in “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun
Rising” different from the love of the common people.
E. Significance of the Research
The results of the research are expected to give both theoretical and practical
significances. Theoretically, the results of this research are expected to be able to
enrich the insight of the researcher in the literature field, especially in objective
criticism of intrinsic elements in the poetry. Practically, it is expected that the
results of this research can be useful to the students of English Language and
Literature Study Program. This research hopefully can contribute more knowledge
about poetry, especially to the students whose major is in literature. This research
is also hoped to help the students understand the importance of figurative
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This section consists of some theories that support the research. Those theories
include literature definition and Abram’s critical theories, objective theory,
poetry, language elements in poetry, and John Donne’s “A Valediction:
Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising”. Firstly, the researcher presents the
definition of literature and its relation to Abram’s critical theories, as well as
objective theory, as one of Abram’s four critical theories. Secondly, the researcher
presents the explanation about poetry, which is followed by its language elements
such as diction, imagery, and figurative language. Lastly, the researcher describes
John Donne’s “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising” in a
brief explanation.
1. Literature Definition and Abram’s Critical Theories
It takes some times to define what literature is and what kind of composition
counted as literature is. Many questions and attempts wander through people’s
mind in order to find a precise definition of literature. Earlier, the confusion
emerges to distinguish whether certain writing is literature or not, a phone book
for example. People question whether literature is simply a linguistic composition
or it must be fictional. Then, it comes to conclusion that literature is either spoken
or written composition of imagination that takes the form of drama, metrics, or
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However, the confusion about literature still goes on. The literary experts
question whether literature can be ‘factual’ and whether or not literature is derived
from historical, sociological, and philosophical reflection. Thus, Eagleton (1996:
2) argues that certain composition can be defined as literature because it uses
“peculiar language”, not because it is a fiction or a reflection. The only way to
recognize literature is through the use of deviation language that draws attention
to itself. To decide whether a certain literature is a reflection of other elements or
not, maintains Eagleton, the critics need to employ a certain critical theory to
approach it.
Critical theory provides some methodologies to answer the long debated
questions. It allows the critics to examine a literary work from different point of
view and articulate their own hypothesis toward the work. Each critical theory
launches different standards that enable the readers to authenticate and explain
their analysis and judgment of the work’s aesthetic value. Each critical theory also
allows the exploration of the work to define what literature is. Thus, the definition
of literature is not limited to the use of peculiar and imaginative language, but it
can be broaden based on the theory that is used to define it (Brussler, 1999:
11-12).
However, the diversity of critical theories creates a chaos instead. Those
varied theories cannot be either measure or compare to one another because they
are different in terms and significances. Abrams (1971: 5) argues that the chaos
among those theories is “because they lack a common ground on which to meet
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all. There is no even one simple reference to relate the definition of literature from
one theory to another one. Seeing this chaos, thus, Abrams proposes the
“orientation of critical theories” that can simplify those varied theories.
Abrams claims that almost all critical theories, basically, show an orientation
toward one of four main elements in art criticism. Those four elements are the
work itself as the product of art, the artist who creates the work, the universe from
which the work is derived, and the audience to whom the work is contributed.
Therefore, to afford ground analysis of literary work, Abrams distinguishes the
critical theory into four categories: mimetic, pragmatic, expressive, and objective
theory based on their orientation toward each element (Abrams, 1971: 6).
The first category is mimetic theory. Abrams consider this theory as “the most
primitive” theory because its initial appearance has been noted since Plato era.
The main belief of this theory is that a literary work is the imitation of the
universe. For this theory, poetry and other works of art exist only to represent the
appearance of the universe. Thus, the way it analyzes the literary work is by
judging its accurateness of the copy (Abrams, 1999: 51).
The second category is pragmatic theory. This theory believes that the creation
of a work only aims the audiences. Sydney (in Abrams, 1971: 14) argues that
poetry’s chief purpose is to move the readers by giving them certain effects, such
as emotion and edification. This theory judges a work based on its success in
achieving the readers’ response. It puts emphasis on the strategy that the author
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literary work using this theory, literary critics also need to assess the responses
given by the readers toward the work.
The third category is expressive theory. This theory highlights the relationship
between a literary work and the author. For this theory, a literary work is the
product coming from the author’s feeling, thought, and imagination. Wordsworth,
as one of the initiators of this theory, declares in Abrams (1971:21) that poetry is
the poet’s “spontaneous of overflow feeling.” Therefore, to evaluate a literary
work using this theory, literary critics need to observe the authors’ personal life in
order to relate their feeling and perspective to their work.
The last category of Abram’s critical theory is objective theory. This theory
exists to object the principle of mimetic, pragmatic, and expressive theory. For
this theory, a literary work is an independent entity that is able to empower itself
without being interfered by the universe, audience, or author. This criticism
appreciates a literary work as the center of analysis that controls itself, not being
controlled by other elements outside the work. Hence, literary critics must
emphasize their analysis solely on the work and ignore its extrinsic elements since
biographical, cultural or historical origins have nothing to do with the text
(Abrams, 1999: 51).
2. Objective Theory
Objective theory is defined in Columbia Dictionary of Modern Literary and
Cultural Criticism (1995: 212) as a theory that concentrates on the literary work’s
correlation with its intrinsic elements. For this criticism, a literary work is
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the quality of a literary work is by evaluating the structure, symbols, imagery,
figure of speech, and other intrinsic elements. In the same line, Ratna (2013: 73)
also argues that the focus of objective theory lies only on the intrinsic elements.
This theory disregards other elements coming from outside the works, such as
authorial, sociological, political, and historical elements. The aim of this theory is
to analyze the correlations between the internal elements of the work in
empowering the work itself.
Furthermore, Abrams (1971: 52) states that the objective theory considers a
literary work as “something that stands free from what is often called "extrinsic"
relations to the poet, or to the audience, or to the environing world.” This theory
perceives a literary work as a “self-sufficient and autonomous object.” A literary
work, believes this theory, is “a world on its own” that is capable to empower
itself through the construction of organized elements. The aesthetic and
meaningful value of a literary work emerges merely because of the interrelation of
its intrinsic elements, not because of the influence of other elements.
Objective theory, then, can be assumed as the literary critical theory whose
main target is the literary work itself. The leading idea of this theory is to examine
thoroughly the work and evaluate how the intrinsic elements work together to
contribute a unifying theme and meaning. Therefore, the role of the author, reader,
or the society toward the literary work is ignored in this theory.
The principle of this theory is supported by T.S. Eliot (in Abrams, 1971: 27)
who states that “when we are considering poetry, we must consider it primarily as
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of other elements such as author, reader, politic, society, and history in the
analysis of the literary work. In analyzing a literary work, the critics ought to look
at the work as the work itself, not as what is determined by other elements.
Similar to Eliot, John Crowe Ransom in Abrams (1971: 28) also recognizes
the literary work’s authority “for its own sake”. He believes that a literary work is
independent and self-governing which has a power in itself. Therefore, it is
capable to determine its own meaning through its varied and complex structure.
Every single structure in the literary work is meaningful and inseparable from one
another. The way the words are chosen and placed in particular construction and
the way imagery, symbol, and figurative language are employed in the work
render certain function to make the work sound gorgeous and become a powerful
complexion (Tyson, 2006: 137). Therefore, the objective approach only needs to
focus on the elements that construct the text in order to understand what the work
actually means.
Since the focus of objective theory is the work, the critics have to pay
attention to each element used in the work. They must, according to Tyson (2006:
137), “carefully examine, or “closely read,” all the evidence provided by the
language of the text itself: its images, symbols, metaphors, rhyme, meter, point of
view, setting, characterization, plot, and so forth.” The close examination toward
those elements leads the analysis to the discovery of the effects and themes of the
works (Brussler, 1999: 43). It proves the relationship between the works’ form
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assess the judgement of the literary work based on whether or not the correlation
of the intrinsic elements contributes to the central unifying idea.
Among several kinds of literary works, poetry is the most suitable one to be
analyzed using this objective theory for the elements that construct it are more
complex. Wolosky (2001: 3) defines poetry as “language in which every
component element—word and word order, sound and pause, image and echo—is
significant, significant in that every element points toward or stands for further
relationships among and beyond themselves.” This kind of literary work is
constructed in verse and uncommon use of word choice and word order that relate
to one another to deliver its central idea. Therefore, Abrams, Poe, and Eliot
mostly use the term ‘poetry’ as the substitute of literary work in their description
about objective theory. Even, Eliot in Brussler (1999: 40) declares that the
readers, in order to obtain a good criticism, need to train themselves to conduct
close reading of poetry, especially the Elizabethan and metaphysical poems.
3. Poetry
Being an ancient and durable work of art, poetry remains popular from
generation to generation. Every civilization in history recognizes the popularity of
poetry. Even, the power of poetry still exists in this scientific age. It is still
written, read, and listened by many people in a great quantity (Altenbernd and
Lewis: 1938: 1). It becomes the concern of all people in all countries, ages, jobs,
and classes. As stated by Perrine (1977: 3), “poetry has been written—and eagerly
read or listened to—by all kinds and conditions of people, by soldier, statesmen,
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Though poetry is an old and popular literary work, no particular definition can
define what poetry is, claims Kuiper (2012: 3). Many theorists have formulated
some definitions and purposes of poetry, but none of them can offer any precise
definition (Frederik, 1988: 19). Since each person has different opinion related to
poetry, the argument about this problem still takes place up to today. When a
group of people agree with a certain theory, another group may not feel satisfied
enough with it. Thus, among the numerous definitions that have been proposed,
Frederik (1988: 3) suggests the readers to pick one definition that typically meets
their way of thinking.
One of the definitions of poetry is presented by Baldick (2001: 198), who
describes poetry as the language in which words are related to one another and
repeated in certain patterned versification. The repetition of the interrelated words
enables the poetry to be either written or spoken in musical form. In line with
Baldick, Perrine (1977: 3) states that poetry is a language that communicates in
more intense way than ordinary language. Hence, poetry can be defined as a kind
of language, both written and oral, that speaks more intensely through the
patterned and interrelated words.
In addition, Kuiper (2012: 1) defines poetry as “a genre of literature that
evokes a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience or a specific
emotional response through language chosen and arranged for its meaning, sound,
and rhythm.” Poetry represents the experiences that become the main concern in
actual life. It speaks out wrath, fear, love, hatred, anxiety, happiness, sadness, and
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that most people in the world commonly experience. Poetry does not only show
those kinds of feeling, but also makes the readers participate in the experience
imaginatively (Perrine, 1977: 4). Those experiences and emotions in poetry are
intermingled in the language of poetry (Landy, 1979: 94).
Unlike everyday language, the language of poetry is complex and expressive.
It consists of many elements that are developed together and interrelated to one
another to create the theme and meaning of the poem. Through the relationship of
those language elements, poetry is able to represent and communicates the
complexity of people’s experiences and feeling aesthetically (Tyson, 2006: 138).
Therefore, Bressler (1999: 44) argues that to understand the whole meaning of
poetry, the form and content of poetry are inseparable. This statement also
suggests the readers to comprehend the relationship of each element before
analyzing the poetry.
Poetry itself consists of several intrinsic elements that construct it, some of
which are the language elements. These elements of poetry consist of diction,
imagery and figurative language. Each of these elements has different effects in
constructing the meaning of the poem, as described in the explanation below.
a. Diction
The basic language element that makes a poem called as a poem is diction. It
becomes the weapon of poetry, which differentiates it from other literary works.
The diction used in poetry may also be the same as the diction in other writings,
but the words in poetry are purposely and artfully chosen, arranged and rearranged
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intensity of diction makes the ideas embodied in poetry become deeper and more
powerful. The good diction does not only spell out the idea, but also make it
painted into the human soul. Therefore, diction is regarded as the most essential
element in poetry (Frederik, 1999:17).
The diction itself consists of two aspects: denotation and connotation.
Denotation of words is the one that people call as “dictionary definition.” It is the
explicit choice of words that can be named, described, and narrated so that
everybody can find its meaning in dictionary (Alternbernd and Lewis, 1966: 10).
The example of denotation is presented in the statement, ‘I really want to stand on
the mountain peak and see the beauty of this world from there’. The word
“mountain” in the previous statement is a denotation because its intended meaning
is the same as the meaning defined in the dictionary, i.e. “a mass of high rock”
(Oxford Dictionary Fifth Edition, 1995: 759). In contrary, connotation is the word
choice whose meaning can be far from its dictionary meaning. Alternbernd and
Lewis (1966: 10) argue that “connotation supplements denotation by indicating
attitudes and values.” The statement “I have mountains works” (taken from
Frederik, 1999: 36) contains an example of connotation. The word “mountains” in
that sentence has different meaning from the previous. Its real meaning, “a mass
of high rock” is used to imply that the speaker’s works amassed as high as the
mountains.
b. Imagery
Another language element in poetry is imagery, which is the description of
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tasting, or touching. Altenbernd and Lewis (1938: 12) argue that the imagery can
produce a special effect that is almost the same as the effect produced by sensory
organs. The readers can sense the images as if they directly see, smell, hear, touch,
or taste it. In addition, Frederik (1988: 21) argues that the words in poetry will not
be meaningful if the readers do not use their own experience and imagination to
make them vivid. For this reason, the language employed by the poets has to be
more sensuous than ordinary language. The sensuous language helps to evoke the
imagination of the readers. Therefore, Frederik (1988: 20) says that the way the
poets create sensuous language is by employing imagery in their poem.
The poets employ imagery to describe the experience in sharp and precise
ways (Frederik, 1988: 22). Imagery presents concrete and vivid quality of certain
images that recall the experiences the readers have before. The remembrance of
those experiences makes the readers become familiar with the images portrayed in
the poem so that they can respond to them with their own impression. It enables
them to recognize the images as if they perceived them with their own senses. By
participating in the images creation, the readers are able to take part in the exact
experiences talked in the poem (Alternbernd and Lewis, 1966: 13).
1) Visual Imagery
Visual imagery is one of the imagery types that are most frequently employed
in the poems. This kind of imagery is related to the sense of sight (Siswantoro,
2010: 215). It presents the visual images, which enables the readers to imagine as
if they saw the object by their own eyes. Here is an example of visual imagery
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arise and go now, and go to Innisfree, / And a small cabin build there, of clay and
wattles made: / Nine bean-rows will I have there, a hive for the honey-bee,”
(taken from Albright, 1990: 60). The underlined words such as “A small cabin,”
“of clay and wattles made,” “nine bean-rows” and “a hive for the honey-bee” are
examples of visual imagery. They portray the size and materials of the cabin, as
well as the things that can be found around it, such as the rows and hive in visual
description. Those images recall the readers’ pre-existing memory so that they are
able to visualize those objects in their mind as if they saw them by themselves.
2) Auditory Imagery
Auditory imagery is the other kind of imagery that deals with the sense of
sound. This imagery describes and names the sound to portray the situation in the
poetry (Altenbernd and Lewis, 1966: 13). It presents the imaginative description
of the sound so that the readers are able to recognize what kind of sound it is and
in which kind of situation they hear the sound. This imagery can also be produced
not only by naming certain sound, but also by imitating the natural sound that is
also known as onomatopoeia. When the poets employ onomatopoeia, they
describe the sound exactly as how it is heard. The example of auditory imagery
can be seen in the lines of Shakespeare’s “Winter” below.
Then nightly sings the starring owl, Tu-who;
Tu-whit, tu-who: a merry note While greasy Joan doth keel the pot. (taken from Burto, 1992: 141)
“Tu-who;/ Tu-whit, tu-who:” is an example of auditory imagery that imitates
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atmosphere in the poem. Most readers may have heard that kind of sound at night,
especially at a gloomy night. Therefore, they are expected to be able to imagine
the gloomy atmosphere in the cold night by hearing the sound of owl.
3) Tactile Imagery
Tactile is a kind of imagery that suggests the sense of feeling
(Altenbernd and Lewis, 1966: 13). This imagery presents the description
of images that can arouse the readers’ sensitivity as if they touched those
images with their own skin. Shakespeare’s “Venus and Adonis” presents
an example of this imagery in “My flesh is soft and plump, my marrow
burning; / My smooth moist hand, were it with thy hand left,” (taken from
http://shakespeare.mit.edu/Poetry/VenusAndAdonis.html). The speaker of
the poem depicts the speaker’s beauty by employing tactile imagery. He
mentions the words “soft,” “smooth,” and “moist” to describe how the
flesh and hand feel. Those images evoke the readers’ pre-existing
experience in touching a “soft” and “moist” hand and stimulate them to
fancy a beautiful girl with that kind of skin. Hence, this method is
effective to invite the readers to participate in the poem.
4) Olfactory Imagery
Olfactory imagery is the imagery that depicts a certain smell to remind the
readers to a familiar odor (Altenbernd and Lewis, 1966: 14). The recalling of the
smell enables the readers to recognize what kind of smell talked in the poem and
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breeze drew across it” in Robert Frost’s “Out, Out” (taken from Brooks and
Warren, 1960: 24) portrays this kind of imagery. In that poem, the speaker gives
concrete images for the readers to have an imagination about what happens to the
wood. He presents “sweet-scented stuff” as an example of olfactory imagery to
describe how the wood smells. The imagery brings the remembrance of the smell
to the readers’ mind so that they are stimulated to imagine the smell and the
sensation it brings.
5) Gustatory Imagery
Though rarely used, gustatory imagery is an important kind of imagery. This
imagery is used to describe the sense of taste (Abrams, 1999: 121). The poets
employ it when they want the readers to have an imagination of how something
tastes to them. Robert Frost employs the gustatory imagery in one of his poems
entitled “Blueberries” in the poem below:
It must be on charcoal they fatten their fruit. I taste in them sometimes the flavour of soot. And after all really they’re ebony skinned:
The blue’s but a mist from the breath of the wind, A tarnish that goes at a touch of the hand,
(taken from https://m.poets.org/poetsorg/poem/blueberries)
In the quotation above, the speaker describes the color and flavor of blueberries
after the fire. He also illustrates the taste of the blueberries as “the flavor of soot.”
With that imagery, he expects the readers to imagine its taste and acknowledge the
effect of the fire.
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Based on Oxford English Dictionary, kinesthetic imagery is a kind of imagery that describes the sensory organ of movement. This imagery enables the readers to
recognize the movements in the poems. The example of this imagery is employed
by Robert Browning’s “Meeting at Night” below:
The grey sea and the long black land; And the yellow half-moon large and low And the startled little waves that leap In fiery ringlets from their sleep,
(taken from https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poems)
The speaker of this poem intends to portray the scenery that becomes the witness
of his meeting with his lover at night. The words “the startled little waves” in line
three is an example of kinesthetic imagery that he uses to emphasize that the
meeting point is set in the beach where he sees the movement of water at coastal
areas. He presents that image in order the readers to be able to grasp the
impression of walking along the beach and being welcomed by the soft leaping
waves.
c. Figurative Language
In making poems, poets need to employ the deviation of language known as
figurative language. According to Wren and Martin (in Siswantoro, 2010: 115),
figurative language is the use of language which deviates from daily expression or
the common way of thinking. By employing figurative language, the poets can
achieve a special effect in their poems intensely.
Figurative language employs the deviation in language. The employment of
figurative language is as same as ordinary language, which is derived from every
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animals around human. However, its use is deviated from the normal use so that it
becomes more intense and vivid. Therefore, the use of figurative language is
important to deepen the experience in the poem (Frederik, 1988: 49).
The figurative language helps to deliver the idea, thought and feeling of a
poem in imaginative way. They deal with one thing by relating or comparing it to
something else. The successful figurative language will not only make the readers
realize the experience intensely, but also add their excitement. The effects that are
caused by the establishment of the figurative language are varied, depending on
the type (Altenbernd and Lewis, 1938: 15). In the below section, the researcher
will explain further about each type of figurative language, as well as its
significances.
1) Metaphor
According to Simon and Schuster (1996: 37), “metaphor is the figure of
speech which compares one thing to another directly.” In line with Simon and
Schuster’s statement, Alternbernd and Lewis (1938: 16) state that “when a writer
or speaker asserts that something is, or is equivalent to, something in most ways
actually unlike it, the figure is called metaphor.” In short, metaphor compares two
things by saying that one thing is another thing.
In addition, Wolosky (2001: 30) states that the comparison in metaphor
“happens without warning.” The poet does not use any comparative terms to
assert the comparison in metaphor. Metaphor directly suggests the comparison of
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Usually, the objects are compared directly using the verb “to be.” (Simon and
Schuster, 196: 36).
Simon and Schuster (196: 36) explain further that “when the poet uses
metaphor, he transfers qualities and associations of one object to another in order
to make the latter more vivid in our mind.” The same opinion is also declared by
Wolosky (2001: 30) who says that metaphor is “the transferal of some quality, or
attribute, or word associated with one thing to another thing.” Therefore, the
expression “my heart is titanium,” as an example of metaphor, means that the
quality of titanium, which is a strong material, is transferred into “my heart” to
create an impression that “my heart” is tough.
Another example of metaphor can be found in Emily Dickinson’s poem,
“Hope is the Thing with Feathers” (Simon and Schuster: 1966: 96). In this poem,
Dickinson wants the readers to have an idea about what a hope that she means. In
order to provide a vivid picture in readers’ mind, Dickinson compares hope,
which is an absurd thing, with the thing with feather in her poem.
Hope is the thing with feathers
That perches in the soul,
And sings the tune without the words, And never stops at all.
(taken from Simon and Schuster: 1966: 96)
The speaker starts the poem with a metaphor by saying “hope” is the thing
with feathers”. Put in the first line, this metaphor is impressive to attract readers’
attention. The readers are directed to wonder about the correlation between hope
and the thing with feathers because hope is an absurd thing that does not look like
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of the thing with feathers that are transferred to the hope. By reading the
following lines, the readers are able to grasp an understanding and draw a picture
in their mind about what hope is like and why it is compared to the thing with
feathers.
Each line in this stanza exposes the shared characteristics between hope and
the thing with feathers or bird. In second line, the speaker says, “that perches in
the soul,” to show the first similarity between hope and the thing with feathers.
The word “perches” itself is a name of activity done by bird or the thing with
feathers to stay for a long time, usually on a branch. As same as the thing with
feathers, hope is something that stays and fills the empty space in the soul for a
long time. In the third and fourth line, hope is also said as something that “sings
the tune without the words and never stops at all.” The continuously tune without
words which is sung by hope keeps the soul cheerful and lively. In conclusion,
hope which stays in individual’s soul encourage them to desire and reach
something.
2) Simile
Landy (1979: 43) states that “a simile is a comparison, and is always stated as
such.” Lewis and Altenbernd (1963: 18) affirm that simile shows similarity
between two things instead of identity. The two things which are compared in
simile are actually dissimilar but shown to resemble each other. According to
Simon and Schuster (1966: 41), “simile is a direct comparison between things
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The presence of comparison in simile is announced explicitly through the use
of connecting word. The poet openly asserts that one thing is like another thing.
Simon and Schuster (1966: 41) argue that simile is presented through a connecting
word to signify the existence of comparison in it. The poets announce the
comparison by bringing up the words “like,” “as,” and “than” between the
compared objects. The word “resemble,” “compare,” or “similar” can also be used
to show the comparison in simile (Wolosky: 2001: 30). The example of this
figurative language is demonstrated in the Lord Bryon’s poem entitled “She
Walks in Beauty” below.
She walks in Beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies; And all that’s best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes: Thus mellow’d to that tender light Which Heaven to gaudy denies.
(taken from Simon and Schuster, 1966: 73)
Using connecting word “like,” simile explicitly announces the existence of
comparison at the opening of this poem. Simile is presented to compare the
woman who walks in beauty with the night that is shown in “she walks in beauty,
like the night.” Those two objects are noticeably two different things that show
nothing in similar. However, what is being compared by the speaker is the beauty
which is found both in the woman and the night. In this poem, the speaker wants
to describe the woman’s beauty in detail, not only about her beautiful face but
also about the whole impression of beauty that she gets when everyone sees her.
To make the readers catch the same opinion about the woman’s beauty, the
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In spite of its open and simple declaration, the comparison between the lover
and the night is extended over the whole stanza. This extension is aimed to
describe that the night that is compared to the woman’s beauty is not a mere night
and to make the readers have the picture of this woman’s beauty in their mind. In
second line, the speaker of the poem describes that the night is cloudless and
starry. A night with cloudless climes decorated with the bright stars, as what the
speaker states in the third line, is the best view of the night. The contrast of dark
and bright results the best combination of beauty. That perfect beauty is what the
speaker sees from the woman’s eyes and aspect. The speaker closes the stanza by
saying that the woman’s beauty is sweet and tender. The speaker regards that kind
of beauty is lovelier than the gaudy beauty.
3) Personification
Personification is also a figurative language of comparison, but the
comparison is made between nonhuman and human. As what Simon and Schuster
(1966: 39) state that personification is the figure of speech that assigns humans
attributes to nonhuman objects or ideas. Wolosky (2001: 93) adds that “it always
likens something that is not human to the human realm.” The nonhuman objects
like wood, river, animal, cloud, and abstract things are described as having human
characteristics or feeling (Landy, 1979: 48). Those non-human objects are
described as being able to behave, think, and perceive like a normal human being.
Through personification, poet can describe the nonhuman world in dramatic
ways. Lewis and Alternbernd (1963: 22) argue that “here abstraction is endowed
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disembodied idea dramatically effective.” The use of personification gives power
and life to nonhuman objects, which also enriches the power of the poem as well.
Personification is common to be found in nineteenth century poems. One of them
is James Stephens’ poem entitled “The Wind” which gives many examples of
(taken from https://poetrynook.com/poem/wind-27)
In this poem, the speaker describes about the wind that he personifies as a
human. The speaker in that poem, Stephen endows the wind that is an abstract
thing with the quality of human. He treats the wind as if it is a human being that
can do and feel something. They are described as if they can stand up, whistle,
kick, and kill. The function of this metaphor is to make it more dramatically and
vivid.
4) Paradox
Paradox is the statements or ideas that are self-contradictory or opposed to
common sense in the first glance. However, they may be found as the hidden truth
upon investigation (Frederik, 1988: 49). The function of paradox is to emphasize
and draw attention to something (Simon and Schuster, 1966: 38). An example of
this figure of speech is Chidiock Tichborne’s “Elegy, Written with His Own Hand
in the Tower before His Execution”: “My tale was heard, and yet it was not told,”
https://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/nov/26/poem-of-the-week-29
chidiock-tichborne). To draw the attention of the readers, the poet presents two
contradictory statements in each line. Tichborne says that everybody knows his
tale, but nobody ever spreads it in fact. By stating that statement, the readers’
attention will be drawn. They will wonder what the poet actually means.
5) Irony
Irony is the contrast between the meanings of the words (Simon and Schuster,
1966: 35). They also argue that “irony can be light, comic, and playful.” Using
irony, the poets play with the readers and share a private joke. The poets will also
bring the readers to enjoy their delightful and refreshing thought. The example of
irony can be found in “Oh No” by Robert Creeley.
If you wander far enough You will come to it And when you get there
They will give you a place to sit
For yourself only, in a nice chair, And all your friends will be there With smiles on their faces
And they will likewise all have places
(taken from http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/oh-no-14/)
The speaker shows the selfishness of the character ‘you’ in this poem. At the
end of his hard work and long journey, the character ‘you’ in this poem finds
himself welcomed in a nice place. However, the speaker presents an irony in the
last line of the quotation above to show how selfish the character ‘you’ is. He sits
in nice chair while his friends stand up sincerely. The irony lies when his friends
put a smile on their face as if they were all seated, but actually they are not.
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Frederik (1988: 48) cites that “metonymy is a figure of speech in which the
name of one thing is applied to another with which it is closely associated.” The
examples of metonymy are easily to be found in daily speech. For instance,
people often call “whisky” by saying “the bottle” because they are closely
associated. The example of metonymy can also be found in Edward Arlington
Robinson’s poem entitled “Richard Cory.”
Whenever Richard Cory went down town, We people on the pavement looked at him: He was a good gentleman from sole to crown, Clean favored, and imperially slim.
(taken from Simon and Schuster, 1966: 61)
In the poem above, there are two examples of metonymy that are found, i.e.
“Sole” and “crown.” “Sole” stands for the common people while “crown” stands
for the rulers. Robinson purposely uses the word “sole” and “crown” instead of
their substituted words to give the concrete description for the readers. The word
“sole” refers to common people because many of them are poor and having no
shoes to wear. Therefore, common people are identically associated with being
“sole.” In contrary, king, as the ruler of the kingdom, always wears a marvelous
golden crown on his head to signify his power. For that reason, the king is
recognized with “the crown” that he wears.
7) Synecdoche
In contrast to metonymy, synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part is
used to signify the whole part (Simon and Schuster: 1966: 41). In other words,
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only presents a small detail of it. The example of synecdoche can be found in
Rupert Brooke’s poem, “The Death.”
These hearts were woven of human joys and cares, Washed marvelously with sorrow, swift to mirth The years had given them kindness. Dawn was theirs, And sunset, and the colours of the earth.
(taken from https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poems )
“Hearts” in the first line is an example of synecdoche. Heart is a part of human
being that is used to refer to the whole human being in this poem. Brooke uses the
word “heart” instead of “human” because heart is the most important part in the
human body. In addition, heart is also signified as the center of human emotion.
Its existence brings in the emotion in human life. It enables every single person
feels joyful, sad, angry, caring, hate, and loving. Even, the beat of the hearts goes
up and down along with the emotion felt by the individual. Thus, the presentation
of “hearts” is powerful enough to enable the readers to join in the emotion in the
poem.
8) Apostrophe
Apostrophe is a figure of speech that has a close relation with personification.
This figure of speech addresses the absent, the dead, or the inanimate object as if
they were a present and living human being (Baldick, 2001: 17). This figure
sometimes emerges in the beginning of a poem to indicate that the speaker is
talking to that character through the whole poem. The example of this apostrophe
can be seen in John Donne’s “Holy Sonnets: Death, be not proud”. “Death, be
not proud, though some have called thee” (taken from
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beginning of this poem, the speaker addresses the Death as the person to whom he
is speaking in the whole poem. However, “Death” here is not a name of a real
present person. It is the concept of death that he challenges in this poem. The
apostrophe of “Death” is presented to emphasize the idea that he is not afraid to
the death at all. This figure creates an effect that the speaker is more powerful
than the death. In addition, the use of apostrophe helps to focus the poem so that
the readers can recognize that the whole poem is only talking about death at one
glance.
9) Hyperbole
Hyperbole is the exaggeration statement in the poetry. Its function is to
emphasize a point in the poetry, both for comic and serious purposes. Besides, it
can give a dramatic effect to the readers so that they can feel touched (Simon and
Schuster, 1966: 34). The example of hyperbole can be seen in Robert Burns’ “A
Red, Red Rose.”
As fair art thou, my bonnie lass, So deep in luve am I,
And I will luve thee still, my dear,
Till a’ the seas gang dry, my dear,
never dry and the rocks will never melt in fact. These overstatements are used to
produce a dramatic effect to the readers so that they will feel interested to keep
33
in love with his lover. By saying those exaggerated statements, he means that his
love for her will last forever and never fade away.
4. John Donne’s “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising”
John Donne’s “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising”
are two of his metaphysical poems that talk about love. Both speakers in these two
poems portray their love for their lover in such a way to ensure the readers that
nothing can compare their love. The way the speakers express their love is
incomparable for they express it through the complex word choice and word
order, which add the significances of the love expression itself.
In “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning”, the speaker tries to convince his
lover that their separation will never separate their love. From the beginning up to
the ending of the poem, the speaker presents some illustration that analogizes their
love. In the first stanza, he describes the sincerity of the virtuous men in facing the
death. The lover, assumes the speaker, should see those virtuous men and do as
they do, i.e. letting him go sincerely. She should stop crying and showing off her
sadness for those things will only alleviate the purity of their love. Then, he
explains further the logical reasons for his lover to let him go. He ensures her that
this separation does not really separate them for they have been united in the
oneness of their love. To make her understand his concept of separation deeper,
the speaker compares himself and his lover to the twin compasses, which he
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The love expressions in this poem are not only conveyed through the
metaphorical words, but also through the artistic music in each line. Donne writes
this poem in thirty-six lines, which are divided into nine quatrains. Each stanza in
this poem is written in common form rhyme for quatrains, which is a b a b. In
addition, this poem is iambic tetrameter for the syllables in each line alternate
between unstressed syllables and four stressed syllables. For this meaningful and
artistic construction, this poem is regarded as a complex and rich composition that
expresses a deep love.
Similar to “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning”, Donne’s “The Sun Rising”
is also a complex and meaningful love poem. This poem portrays the prominence
of the speaker’s love. Even, to indicate how great his love is, the speaker
challenges the sun, which he assumes to be less powerful than his love. This poem
is preceded with the speaker’s anger toward the sun that wakes up him and his
lover. Then, he challenges the sun to show the power of his beams, which is
nothing compared to the power of his love. Thus, in the following lines, he
declares that he is the ruler of the world for all kings and wealth are bent down to
him. Even, he claims that he and his lover are the center of the world so that the
sun only needs to shine to them in order to be able to shine the world.
This dramatic love poem is constructed in three ten-lines stanzas. Each stanza
in this poem is constructed in rhyme a b b a c d c d e e. In addition, the meter in
this poem does not have a specific name. Line 1, 5, and 6 in each stanza is iambic
tetrameter because the eight syllables alternate between four unstressed syllables
35
because they consist of two unstressed syllables and two stressed syllables. Then,
the rest of the lines are iambic pentameter that consists of ten syllables, which
alternate between unstressed and stressed syllables.
B. Previous Study
The researcher admits that there have been many previous researches that also
discuss about love and figurative language. However, none of those researches is
similar. Though discuss the same topic, each of them has their own distinctive
focus and object. One of the similar researches is conducted by Dewi Sagita in
2014. In her research entitled John Keats’ Mixed Feeling of Love to Fanny
Brawne Expressed in His Poem ‘Ode on Melancholy,’ the researcher analyzes the
figurative language which is used to express John Keats’ mixed feeling in his
‘Ode on Melancholy’ by using expressive criticism. In that research, the
researcher finds out that John Keats employs several kinds of figurative language
such as allusion, personification, and simile to express his deepest love to Fanny
Brawne. Those figures of speech also reveal Keats’ own feeling of anxious,
delighted, jealous, sad and spirited so that the readers can discover the
visualization of the love feeling which he embodies in his poem.
Another similar research is conducted by Graham Roebuck in 1994. Different
from Dewi Sagita’s research, Roebuck’s research, entitled “A Valediction:
Forbidding Mourning”: Traditions and Problems of Imagery only focuses on the
employment of images in “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” without relating
it to love or other themes. In that research, the researcher, using New Criticism,
36
simile, conceit, and analogy, deserve to be claimed as unrivalled prominence in
the discussion of poetry.
This research is not the same as those two previous researches. Using
objective criticism, this research focuses on analyzing the employment of
figurative language to express the speakers’ love which they assume to be
different from common people’s love in John Donne’s “A Valediction:
Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun Rising.” To be able to analyze the love
expression in those two poems, the researcher uses objective theory to identify the
types of figurative language employed by John Donne as well as their
significances in expressing love.
C. Conceptual Framework
This research tries to make an analysis of love differences between common
people and the speaker of “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun
Rising” through the employment of figurative language. The researcher means to
answer three objectives that are analyzed in this research. The first is the kinds of
figurative language employed by John Donne in the texts. The second is the
significance of figurative language to express love. The last one is the way the
love of the speakers of “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” and “The Sun
Rising” different from the love of common people through the employment of the
figurative language.
To investigate and answer her three research questions, the researcher employs
the objective criticism and theory of figurative language. Based on the theory, the
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simile, personification, paradox, irony, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole,
