TUGAS TRANSLATE JURNAL
Bedside matters: the transformation of Canadian nursing, 1900-1990
McPherson, Kathryn M; Quiney, Linda J. Journal of Canadian Studies; Toronto Vol. 34, Iss. 3, (Fall 1999): 283-291.
---Bedside penting: transformasi keperawatan Kanada, 1900-1990
---PENERJEMAH:
RADIKA ZULFIKHA ISNAEN
NIM: G0A018026
PROGRAM DIPLOMA III KEPERAWATAN
FAKULTAS ILMU KEPERAWATAN DAN KESEHATAN
UNIVERSITAS MUHAMMADIYAH SEMARANG
Hasil Terjemahan
Judul :
Bedside penting: transformasi keperawatan Kanada, 1900-1990
Abstrak :
Sejarah keperawatan Kanada sangat berakar pada biografi konvensional dan gaya narasi deskriptif. Akibatnya, pencatatan yang cermat dari peristiwa dan pelestarian bahan arsip telah memastikan sumber daya yang kaya untuk penelitian masa depan dalam perkembangan awal keperawatan dan pemimpin yang terkenal (Gibbon dan Mathewson). Saat merekam kontribusi perawat luar biasa, metode ini harus membatasi analisis peran komunitas praktisi keperawatan yang lebih luas, mencegah pemahaman komprehensif tentang sejarah dan perkembangan keperawatan dan tempatnya dalam sejarah kerja perempuan.Pada tahun 1991, sejarawan Veronica Strong-Boag yakin bahwa "sejarah perawat mengubah sejarah perempuan dan sejarah Kanada"; Dia mencatat minat baru pada perawat dan keperawatan di kalangan sejarawan sosial karena mereka mulai mempertanyakan hubungan keperawatan untuk isu-isu gender, kelas dan ras (231).Namun sejarawan Kathryn McPherson dan Meryn Stuart telah memperingatkan bahwa tidak semua sarjana keperawatan menyambut "studi sejarah baru yang diinformasikan atau dimotivasi oleh teori politik," dan banyak yang lebih suka bahwa sejarah keperawatan terutama melayani kepentingan keperawatan sendiri (18).Sejarah pendekatan konservatif ini telah menyebabkan pertimbangan hati-hati keperawatan dalam konteks yang lebih luas dari sejarah sosial Kanada.Sebagai perbandingan, pada tahun 1980-an, keilmuan Amerika memimpin dalam meneliti pekerjaan dan budaya keperawatan. Interpretasi baru oleh sejarawan Amerika, Barbara Melosh dalam "The Physician's Hand": Kerja, Budaya, dan Konflik dalam Keperawatan Amerika (1982) dan Susan Reverby di Ordered to Care: Dilema Keperawatan Amerika, 1856-1945 (1987), mengarahkan beasiswa keperawatan Amerika menuju sejarah tenaga kerja sebagai model untuk analisis. Sampai saat ini, keperawatan Kanada tidak memiliki kerangka analitis serupa untuk interpretasi perkembangan sejarahnya sendiri.
Naskah Lengkap :
The Women of Royaumont: Rumah Sakit Wanita Skotlandia di Front Barat. Eileen Crofton. East Lothian: Tuckwell Press, 1997
Perawat Militer Kanada: Rekaman Perawat Militer Kanada. Vol. 1 E.A. Landell, ed. Whiterock, BC: Co-Publishing, 1995.
Bedside Matters: Transformasi Keperawatan Kanada, 1900-1990. Kathryn McPherson. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Tidak Ada yang Pernah Menang Perang: Perang Dunia I Diaries dari Ella Mae Bongard, R.N. Eric Scott, ed. Ottawa: Janeric Enterprises, 1997.
Jean I. Gunn: Pemimpin Keperawatan. Natalie Riegler. Markham: A.M.S./ Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 1997.
memimpin dalam meneliti pekerjaan dan budaya keperawatan. Interpretasi baru oleh sejarawan Amerika, Barbara Melosh dalam "The Physician's Hand": Kerja, Budaya, dan Konflik dalam Keperawatan Amerika (1982) dan Susan Reverby di Ordered to Care: Dilema Keperawatan Amerika, 1856-1945 (1987), mengarahkan beasiswa keperawatan Amerika menuju sejarah tenaga kerja sebagai model untuk analisis. Sampai saat ini, keperawatan Kanada tidak memiliki kerangka analitis serupa untuk interpretasi perkembangan sejarahnya sendiri.
Sejarah keperawatan di Kanada membentang berabad-abad; sebelum tatanan keperawatan agama dibawa ke benua oleh kolonis Eropa awal adalah praktik penyembuhan masyarakat Aborigin.Namun keperawatan sebagai profesi yang terorganisir dan terstruktur untuk wanita Kanada hanya berasal dari akhir abad kesembilan belas, ketika antusiasme Victorian untuk ketertiban dan pembangunan institusi memunculkan perkembangan sistem rumah sakit (Rosenberg). Pelatihan yang diregulasi oleh perawat Kanada dimulai saat para wanita muda yang berpendidikan, lajang, direkrut untuk mempersiapkan sertifikasi sebagai perawat lulusan selama periode dua atau tiga tahun saat bekerja di bangsal rumah sakit. Abad baru melihat evolusi keperawatan standar dan profesional di Kanada, dengan banyak kredit karena generasi pemimpin yang luar biasa, yang masing-masing memberikan cap khas pada program pelatihannya sendiri. Sejarah wanita-wanita yang diilhami ini telah mendominasi perkembangan yang lebih luas dari sejarah keperawatan Kanada ke tahun 1990-an, tetapi pencapaian dari kekuatan yang jauh lebih besar dari perawat yang bekerja yang dilatih di sekolah-sekolah, melayani di bidang kesehatan masyarakat, dan merupakan komponen utama dalam pengembangan sistem perawatan rumah sakit Kanada yang banyak digembar-gemborkan, patut dicermati; Kathryn McPherson's Bedside Matters: The Transformation of Canadian Nursing, 1900-1990 akhirnya memberikan sejarah keperawatan Kanada analisis komprehensif sendiri.
ini, Bedside Matters mengeksplorasi dunia keperawatan dari koridor lingkungan, bukan dari kantor pengawas keperawatan. Sejarah lisan dan bahan arsip ditenun menjadi kain yang termasuk buku kerja siswa, catatan rumah sakit, dan menit asosiasi keperawatan, menggambarkan transformasi historis keperawatan Kanada pada beberapa tingkatan.Pembaca dengan demikian mengamati baik siswa muda yang tidak pasti menjadi lulusan yang percaya diri dan evolusi pekerjaan dan budaya keperawatan selama 90 tahun, dari awal sebagai karir baru bagi wanita menjadi profesi di bawah tekanan.McPherson mengklaim bahwa sebagian besar stres ini telah berkembang dari dalam, melalui visi keperawatan yang bertentangan sebagai, bagi sebagian orang, profesi yang terampil dan, kepada orang lain, sebagai "pekerjaan perempuan." Persepsi keperawatan berbasis gender telah mendevaluasi baik status dan upah dasar keperawatan. Perjuangan antara administrasi keperawatan dan medis rumah sakit pelatihan, serta konflik internecine antara pemimpin keperawatan dan guru untuk mempromosikan prioritas mereka sendiri telah berkontribusi pada upaya berkelanjutan perawat terlatih untuk pengakuan sebagai praktisi yang terampil, daripada pekerja rumah sakit.
Pengakuan perawat sebagai profesional yang terampil juga telah terhambat oleh konotasi seksual yang melekat pada penggambaran mereka dalam budaya populer, seperti yang digambarkan Bab 5. Dengan menggunakan contoh iklan majalah dari tahun 1958, yang menggambarkan seorang perawat rumah sakit yang tersenyum tersenyum, melirik ke belakang pada dua pasien pria yang puas dengan judul "Obat Terbaik Pria Pernah ...?" (192-3), penulis menunjukkan bagaimana perawat dipaksa untuk menavigasi jalan berliku antara persepsi mereka sebagai pengasuh atau pelacur.
transformasi dalam keperawatan Kanada sebagai peristiwa, tren, politik dan perkembangan sosial dari periode-periode waktu yang berhasil dieksplorasi di seluruh generasi keperawatan. Dalam bab pertamanya, penulis merekonseptualisasi sejarah keperawatan terlatih di Kanada, meninjau historiografi dan membenarkan kerangka penafsirannya, seperti yang dia berargumen, "Tidak sepenuhnya profesional atau bagian dari kaum proletar yang didominasi laki-laki, hubungan sosial kelas, jender dan etnis dikombinasikan untuk menciptakan posisi yang berbeda untuk perawat "(18). Kuartal terakhir abad kesembilan belas dipandang sebagai era perawat generasi pertama Kanada yang berjuang untuk mendapatkan pengakuan dan kehormatan.
kecenderungan liberalisasi lebih banyak diarahkan oleh kebutuhan kerja daripada pikiran terbuka.Bedside Matters mengacu pada sumber-sumber dari seluruh Kanada, terutama catatan lisan dan arsip dari Nova Scotia, Manitoba dan British Columbia.Narasi pribadi memperkuat analisis untuk memberikan wawasan yang meyakinkan ke dalam kompleksitas hubungan perawat dengan teman sebaya, atasan dan pasien.Dengan penelitian ini, sejarah keperawatan Kanada telah memasuki era transformatifnya sendiri; Buku McPherson menetapkan standar baru untuk interpretasi keperawatan dalam konteks sejarah sosial Kanada dan sejarah kerja perempuan.
bawah naungan universitas, sehingga menekankan ilmu praktik keperawatan.Ini adalah tema utama dari biografi Gunn, menempatkannya dalam analisis Kathryn McPherson tentang transformasi dalam keperawatan terlatih selama generasi kedua dan ketiga, dari tahun 1900 hingga Perang Dunia Kedua.
Melalui kesulitan Gunn dengan hirarki medis yang didominasi laki-laki dari administrasi rumah sakit, Riegler mengilustrasikan isu-isu gender dan kekuasaan baik di dalam koridor rumah sakit dan pemerintah terpilih yang berusaha mempertahankan sistem rumah sakit berbiaya rendah yang dikelola oleh siswa keperawatan perempuan yang ditawan dan tidak dibayar. Perjuangan Gunn diperpanjang hingga perekrutan perawat untuk dinas militer dalam Perang Dunia Pertama. Prihatin bahwa hanya perawat berkualifikasi terbaik yang memiliki hak istimewa untuk melayani di luar negeri, Gunn dan petugas lain dari Asosiasi Perawat Latih Kanada (CNATN) menawarkan untuk mengontrol pemilihan pelamar untuk layanan di luar negeri melalui sistem pendaftaran. Meskipun diarahkan untuk melanjutkan rencana mereka oleh Perdana Menteri Borden dan Direktur Jenderal Korps Medis Angkatan Darat Kanada, rekomendasi mereka akhirnya diabaikan.Pemerintah "secara sadar menerima perawat tidak disetujui oleh CNATN" [79]. Meskipun banyak perawat yang memenuhi syarat berhasil mencapai layanan di luar negeri, episode ini berfungsi untuk menunjukkan bagaimana sedikit kontrol perawat terhadap pekerjaan dan status mereka sendiri
"untuk membuat buku ini lebih mudah dibaca daripada tesis" (9) yang pada gilirannya meminimalkan nilainya sebagai alat penelitian. Tidak ada yang kurang Jean I. Gunn adalah kontribusi yang signifikan terhadap genre studi biografi dalam sejarah keperawatan, melampaui gaya naratif tradisional dan menyajikan analisis yang baik meningkatkan pencapaian subjeknya dan menempatkan dirinya dalam perkembangan historis dia secara langsung dipengaruhi.
Penambahan kedua baru-baru ini pada biografi keperawatan, Douglas O. Baldwin, She Answered Every Call: Kehidupan Perawat Kesehatan Masyarakat, Mona Gordon Wilson, menggambarkan kehidupan seorang wanita yang dalam banyak hal pelopor dalam perawatan kesehatan masyarakat. Kepedulian terhadap kesehatan masyarakat, khususnya di bidang perawatan ibu dan bayi, tumbuh secara signifikan selama tahun-tahun antar-perang, sebagian sebagai konsekuensi dari contoh yang mengkhawatirkan dari rekrut militer yang tidak layak untuk Perang Dunia Pertama.Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, sejarah perempuan Kanada telah mengambil pandangan kritis pada fenomena ini, memeriksa program dan propaganda yang diarahkan pada ibu (Comacchio; Arnup). Para pekerja garis depan, perawat kesehatan masyarakat, telah menerima lebih sedikit perhatian meskipun pekerjaan Florence Emory, Meryn Stuart dan Kari Delhi; belum ada studi penafsiran utama tentang sejarah keperawatan kesehatan masyarakat di Kanada. Buku Baldwin selalu berkonsentrasi pada kehidupan dan karya Mona Wilson, yang, untuk waktu antara perang, satu-satunya praktisi perawatan kesehatan masyarakat di daerah terpencil Prince Edward Island. Meskipun ia telah bekerja dengan Palang Merah Amerika di Rusia dan Balkan sebelum pengangkatan ini, dan kemudian bekerja di Newfoundland selama Perang Dunia Kedua, keterlibatannya dalam pengembangan sistem perawatan kesehatan masyarakat di PEI yang menandai karier Wilson .
kesehatan masyarakat. Ini akan memperjelas perannya dalam pengembangan kebijakan sosial pemerintah provinsi; infrastruktur perawatan kesehatan di Prince Edward Island sedang dibangun pada saat yang sama dengan pola yang lebih luas dari negara kesejahteraan Kanada juga sedang dirancang.
Pulau pada tahun 1920 adalah tempat suram bagi perawat kesehatan masyarakat; kemiskinan dan isolasinya menambah besar tugas Mona Wilson ketika ia pertama kali ditunjuk oleh Palang Merah. Provinsi ini tidak memiliki departemen kesehatan atau cabang dari Victorian Order of Nurses, dan menyediakan minimum dalam dukungan perawatan kesehatan. Wilson dengan berani menerima tantangan itu; bahwa ia bertahan selama 38 tahun adalah bukti dedikasi dan profesionalisme. Sementara ia mendokumentasikan pengembangan keperawatan kesehatan masyarakat di pulau dan Kanada Atlantik pada umumnya, Baldwin menahan diri dari analisis kritis tentang isu-isu dan konsep yang mempengaruhi Wilson dalam proses ini. Keperawatan sebagai profesi yang berkembang untuk wanita, dan pengaruh khususnya pada sistem perawatan kesehatan yang diciptakan selama masa jabatan Wilson, tidak dipertimbangkan dalam konteks sejarah kerja perempuan; tidak ada pemeriksaan masalah gender dan kelas yang secara langsung mempengaruhi bagaimana seorang praktisi perawatan kesehatan perempuan dimasukkan ke dalam struktur birokrasi perawatan kesehatan yang baru di provinsi ini. Hal ini pada gilirannya membatasi dimasukkannya penelitian ini dalam lingkup yang lebih luas dari sejarah keperawatan Kanada yang ditangani oleh Kathryn McPherson. Sementara She Answered Every Call menambahkan materi pada perkembangan historis keperawatan kesehatan publik di Kanada, ia tidak lagi menempatkan subjeknya dalam evolusi kebijakan dan praktik yang ia pengaruhi secara langsung dengan pekerjaannya. Seperti Jean Gunn, bagaimanapun, satu individu dapat dilihat memiliki efek yang signifikan pada peristiwa dan biografi Mona Wilson memberikan kontribusi wawasan baru ke dalam perkembangan historis keperawatan kesehatan masyarakat di Kanada.
kesehatan masyarakat.Perhatian yang jauh lebih sedikit telah diberikan kepada sejarah keperawatan militer dan masa perang Kanada.(F.1) Masing-masing dari dua volume yang ditinjau di sini berkontribusi pada basis sumber daya dari studi semacam itu dan memperbesar kerangka acuan untuk bidang ini.Sifat fragmentaris dari sumber arsip telah menjadi penghalang penting bagi penelitian dan penulisan sejarah keperawatan militer di Kanada.Seperti dicatat Stuart dan McPherson, bahan arsip untuk sejarah keperawatan Kanada kaya, tetapi juga tersebar, dan sering terletak di koleksi pribadi kecil (16-17). Untuk keperawatan, seperti sejarah perempuan pada umumnya, banyak dokumen pribadi, seperti buku harian dan surat, disembunyikan di loteng atau dikubur dalam kumpulan catatan kerabat laki-laki. Narasi yang dikumpulkan untuk Perawat Militer Kanada: Rekaman Perawat Militer Kanada, diedit oleh E.A. Landell dan buku harian yang diterbitkan oleh Eric Scott, Nobody Ever Wins a War: The World War I Diaries of Ella Mae Bongard, R.N., menghadirkan sumber baru yang dapat diakses untuk mempelajari sejarah keperawatan militer dan masa perang
dan morfin" (207). Ruang lingkup pekerjaan, ditambah besarnya konflik dan konsekuensinya, ditunjukkan oleh ingatan perawat untuk memproses 1.700 pasien per hari di rumah sakitnya di Italia selatan, ketika pertempuran berkecamuk di sekitar mereka (305).Dia takjub memiliki telur asli di kapal transportasi yang membawanya dari Inggris ke Italia, karena dia hanya makan telur bubuk selama tiga tahun saat diposting di Inggris (309).
Sementara ingatan-ingatan ini, baik suram dan lucu, tidak memiliki kedekatan entri buku harian, mereka tidak kurang berharga. Kurangnya penjelasan mengenai metodologi membatasi nilai penelitian dari narasi tetapi kualitas dan detail data, dengan wawasannya ke dalam budaya dan suasana keperawatan masa perang, membantu mengisi kekosongan di wilayah yang terabaikan dalam sejarah keperawatan Kanada.
muda duniawi ini, ketika mereka berdamai dengan keberanian para pria, menerima penghancuran tubuh mereka untuk memenuhi kebutuhan para pemimpin militer yang jauh, tidak peduli betapa kurang mulia penyebabnya.daripada yang pernah tampak. Dia juga berbicara tentang keseimbangan hubungan antara perawat, dokter dan pasien, baik pada tingkat pribadi dan profesional. Editor telah dengan murah hati memberikan volume dengan foto-foto yang diambil oleh ibunya selama pelayanannya, serta kenang-kenangan layanan keagamaan, acara sosial, majalah dasar dan kliping berita. Semua ini berkontribusi pada vitalitas komentar Ella Mae Bongard.
Nobody Ever Wins a War adalah salah satu dari hanya beberapa ingatan pribadi yang diterbitkan dari perawat Kanada dalam Perang Dunia Pertama. (F.2) Pengeditan yang cermat dan sensitif dari volume singkat ini, hampir 70 halaman, mentransmisikan perang, dengan kerusakan dan kengerian, di delapan dekade, dengan kedekatan kamera saksi mata. Kata-kata perawat Bongard berbicara kepada kekuatan dan profesionalisme para wanita muda ini, kemanusiaan mereka dalam air mata yang mereka curahkan untuk keberanian bocah yang sedang sekarat, dan tawa dalam persiapan untuk konser Natal.Sementara volume seperti itu tentu mencatat pikiran dan kesan dari seorang wanita, volume ini membuka jendela ke dalam pengalaman yang lebih luas dari keperawatan militer dan masa perang dan merupakan kontribusi untuk pemahaman yang lebih besar tentang sejarah keperawatan.
wanita Kanada terhadap upaya perang sekutu langsung mengarahkan perhatian ke area yang mungkin dari penelitian Kanada.
Biara Cistercian Royaumont, dekat Paris, adalah rumah sakit sukarela selama Perang Dunia Pertama, didanai dan didukung oleh Rumah Sakit Wanita Skotlandia untuk Pelayanan Asing (SWH), cabang Perhimpunan Nasional Hak Asasi Perempuan; itu dikelola dan dioperasikan sepenuhnya oleh perempuan. Sebagai seorang dokter yang sudah pensiun tanpa pengalaman sebelumnya dalam bidang keilmuan sejarah, Dr. Crofton telah menghasilkan penelitian yang baik tentang pencapaian tunggal ini.Buku ini pertama kali menjelaskan perkembangan dan fungsi rumah sakit dari tahun 1914 hingga 1919, kemudian menyajikan survei biografis tentang anggota staf yang terkemuka. Materi anekdot dikumpulkan dari wawancara dengan anggota keluarga staf Royaumont, serta dari buku harian dan surat mantan staf, catatan rumah sakit, dan buletin dari Asosiasi Royaumont pasca perang.
didanai oleh Canadian Red Cross Society, dan membentangkan bendera Kanada yang sangat besar tergantung di salah satu ujungnya.
Analisis Crofton tentang pengalaman Royaumont didefinisikan dengan baik dan dipertimbangkan dengan hati-hati, menangani masalah gender, ras, dan kelas secara kompeten. Sebagian besar pasien adalah poilus Prancis, prajurit di tentara Prancis, termasuk banyak dari Afrika Kolonial Prancis, sementara staf wanita semua berkisar dari wanita Inggris yang menjabat sebagai perintah untuk penduduk desa Prancis setempat melakukan pekerjaan menjahit atau dapur. Crofton mengakui ketegangan profesional, termasuk kebencian perawat terlatih yang melihat pasukan yang tidak memenuhi syarat merusak otoritas dan status mereka; dia mempertanyakan ketidaksensitifan yang jelas dari Dr Frances Ivens, kepala dokter dan komandan, yang mengabaikan kekhawatiran perawat, meskipun dia aktif mempromosikan hak dan ambisi wanita medis. Meskipun Women of Royaumont tidak memenuhi syarat sebagai studi Kanada, itu menggambarkan pengalaman masa perang di mana perempuan Kanada terlibat aktif, dan menawarkan sedikit tambahan pada sejarah yang diabaikan tentang kontribusi medis dan keperawatan perempuan Kanada terhadap Perang Besar.
perempuan hanya dapat memajukan beasiswa sejarah sosial, politik dan ekonomi Kanada.
Catatan
(F.1) Untuk survei historis tunggal yang ditujukan untuk keperawatan militer Kanada, lihat G.W.L. Nicholson, Suster Perawatan Kanada.Hanya ada referensi singkat untuk keperawatan di Ruth Roach Pierson "Mereka Masih Perempuan Setelah Semua."
(f.2) Lihat ingatan awal oleh Mabel Brown Clint yang disebut Bit Kami.Lebih baru, tetapi singkat, adalah A.J.B. Johnston's "Into the Great War."
Karya dikutip
Arnup, Katherine. Pendidikan untuk Keibuan: Nasihat untuk Ibu di Twentieth Century Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994.
Clint, Mabel Brown. Bit Kami. Montreal: Alumnae Association of Royal Victoria Hospital, 1943.
Comacchio, Cynthia. "Bangsa-Bangsa Dibangun dari Bayi": Menyelamatkan Ibu dan Anak Ontario, 1900-1940. Montreal / Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993.
Delhi, Kari. "'Pramuka Kesehatan untuk Negara?'Perawat Sekolah dan Kesehatan Masyarakat di Awal Twentieth Century Toronto." Studi Sejarah dalam Pendidikan 2.2 (Fall 1990): 247-64.
Emory, Florence H.M. Perawatan Kesehatan Masyarakat di Kanada. Toronto: Macmillan, 1953.
Gibbon, J.M. dan M.S. Mathewson.Tiga Berabad-abad Keperawatan Kanada. Toronto: Macmillan, 1947.
K. Donovan. Fredericton / Sydney: Acadiensis / University College of Cape Breton, 1990.
McPherson, Kathryn dan Meryn Stuart. "Menulis Riwayat Keperawatan di Kanada: Masalah dan Pendekatan." Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 11: 1 (1994).
Melosh, Barbara. "The Physician's Hand": Pekerjaan, Budaya, dan Konflik dalam Keperawatan Amerika. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982.
Nicholson, G.W.L., Suster Perawatan Kanada. Toronto: Samuel Hakkert, 1975.
Pierson, Ruth Roach. "Mereka Masih Perempuan Setelah Semua": Perang Dunia Kedua dan Wanita Kanada. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1986.
Reverby, Susan. Dipesan untuk Perawatan: Dilema Keperawatan Amerika, 1850-1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Rosenberg, Charles. The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System. New York: 1987.
Kuat-Boag, Veronica. "Membuat Perbedaan: Sejarah Perawat Kanada." Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 8: 2 (1991).
Stuart, Meryn. "Ideologi & Pengalaman: Perawatan Kesehatan Masyarakat dan Proyek Kesejahteraan Anak Pedesaan Ontario, 1920-25." Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 6: 2 (Musim Dingin, 1989): 111-131.
-. "Setengah Roti Lebih Baik daripada Tanpa Roti: Perawat Kesehatan Masyarakat dan Dokter di Ontario, 1920-1925." Penelitian Keperawatan 41: 1 (Januari / Februari 1992): 21-27.
Perempuan di Koleksi Kerja. Museum Perang Imperial, London, Inggris.
Jumlah kata: 4638
Hak Cipta Trent University Jatuh 1999
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Lampiran Naskah Asli :
Title : [Bedside matters: the transformation of Canadian nursing, 1900-1990]
McPherson, Kathryn M; Quiney, Linda J. Journal of Canadian Studies; Toronto Vol. 34, Iss. 3, (Fall 1999): 283-291.
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wrested from the hospital schools and the medical hierarchy and placed under the aegis of the universities, thereby emphasising the science of nursing practice. This is the main theme of the Gunn biography, situating it within [Kathryn McPherson]'s analysis of the transformation in trained nursing during the second and third generations, from 1900 to the Second World War.
Canadian nursing history is strongly rooted in conventional biography and the descriptive narrative style. Consequently, the careful recording of events and preservation of archival material has ensured a rich resource for future research in nursing's early development and its notable leaders (Gibbon and Mathewson). While recording the contributions of exceptional nurses, this method necessarily limits analysis of the role of the wider community of nursing practitioners, preventing comprehensive understanding of nursing's history and development and its place in the history of women's work. In 1991, historian Veronica Strong-Boag confidently predicted that "the history of nurses is changing women's history and the history of Canada"; she noted a new interest in nurses and nursing among social historians as they began to question nursing's relationship to issues of gender, class and race (231). Yet historians Kathryn McPherson and Meryn Stuart have cautioned that not all nursing scholars welcome these new "historical studies informed or motivated by political theory," and many prefer that nursing history mainly serve nursing's own interests (18). This conservative approach history has led to cautious consideration of nursing within the broader context of Canadian social history. By comparison, in the 1980s American scholarship took the lead in examining the work and culture of nursing. New interpretations by American historians Barbara Melosh in "The Physician's Hand": Work, Culture and Conflict in American Nursing (1982) and Susan Reverby in Ordered to Care: the Dilemma of American Nursing, 1856-1945 (1987), directed American nursing scholarship towards labour history as a model for analysis. Until recently, Canadian nursing lacked a similar analytical framework for interpretation of its own historical development.
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She Answered Every Call: The Life of Public Health Nurse, Mona Gordon Wilson (1894-1981). Douglas O. Baldwin. Charlottetown: Indigo Press, 1997.
The Women of Royaumont: A Scottish Women's Hospital on the Western Front. Eileen Crofton. East Lothian: Tuckwell Press, 1997
The Military Nurses of Canada: Recollections of Canadian Military Nurses. Vol. 1 E.A. Landells, ed. Whiterock, BC: Co-Publishing, 1995.
Bedside Matters: The Transformation of Canadian Nursing, 1900-1990. Kathryn McPherson. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Nobody Ever Wins a War: The World War I Diaries of Ella Mae Bongard, R.N. Eric Scott, ed. Ottawa: Janeric Enterprises, 1997.
Jean I. Gunn: Nursing Leader. Natalie Riegler. Markham: A.M.S./Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 1997.
informed or motivated by political theory," and many prefer that nursing history mainly serve nursing's own interests (18). This conservative approach history has led to cautious consideration of nursing within the broader context of Canadian social history. By comparison, in the 1980s American scholarship took the lead in examining the work and culture of nursing. New interpretations by American historians Barbara Melosh in "The Physician's Hand": Work, Culture and Conflict in American Nursing (1982) and Susan Reverby in Ordered to Care: the Dilemma of American Nursing, 1856-1945 (1987), directed American nursing scholarship towards labour history as a model for analysis. Until recently, Canadian nursing lacked a similar analytical framework for interpretation of its own historical development.
McPherson situates her study within the history of woman's work, employing the "tools of social history to probe the everyday lives of 'ordinary' nurses at work" (2), specifically the analytical categories of gender, class and race. By this means, Bedside Matters explores the world of nursing from the ward corridors, rather than from the offices of the nursing supervisors. Oral histories and archival material are woven into a fabric that includes student workbooks, hospital records, and the minutes of nursing associations, illustrating the historical transformation of Canadian nursing on several levels. The reader thus observes both the uncertain young student becoming a confident graduate and the evolution of the work and culture of nursing over 90 years, from its inception as a new career for women into a profession under stress. McPherson claims that a substantial portion of this stress has developed from within, through conflicting visions of nursing as, to some, a skilled profession and, to others, as "women's work." Gender-based perceptions of nursing have devalued both the status and wage base of nursing. Struggles between the nursing and medical administrations of training hospitals, as well as the internecine conflicts between nursing leaders and teachers to promote their own priorities have contributed to the continuing efforts of trained nurses for recognition as skilled practitioners, rather than hospital workers.
Recognition of nurses as skilled professionals has also been impeded by the sexual connotations which have attached to their depictions in popular culture, as Chapter 5 illustrates. Using the example of a magazine advertisement from 1958, which portrayed a demurely smiling hospital nurse glancing back at two contented male patients under the caption "Best Medicine a Man Ever Had...?" (192-3), the author shows how nurses have been forced to navigate a tortuous path between perceptions of them as either caregivers, or courtesans.
nursing as events, trends, politics and social developments of succeeding time periods are explored across nursing generations. In her first chapter, the author reconceptualises the history of trained nursing in Canada, reviewing the historiography and justifying her interpretative framework, as she argues, "Neither fully professional nor part of a male-dominated proletariat, the social relations of class, gender and ethnicity combined to create a distinctive position for nurses" (18). The last quarter of the nineteenth century is seen as the era of the first generation of Canadian-trained nurses who struggled to gain both recognition and respectability.
analysis to give cogent insights into the complexities of nurses' relationships with peers, superiors and patients. With this study, Canadian nursing history has entered its own transformative era; McPherson's book establishes a new standard for interpretation of nursing within the context of Canadian social history and the history of women's work.
Bedside Matters is too recent to have influenced the direction of scholarship in Canadian nursing history as yet. While it offers a methodology that enables nursing history to incorporate aspects of women's and labour history, bringing it into the mainstream of Canadian social history. Two recent biographies, Natalie Riegler's Jean I. Gunn: Nursing Leader and Douglas O. Baldwin's She Answered Every Call: the Life of Public Health Nurse, Mona Gordon Wilson (1894-1981), permit a discussion of how biography can incorporate aspects of social history. Riegler examines her subject by analysing the relation of Gunn's life and work to developments in Canadian nursing in the first 40 years of the last century. Gunn was an important leader in Canadian nursing's quest for professional status and was also superintendent of nurses at the Toronto General Hospital from 1913 until her death in 1941. Although Gunn left few personal documents, a wealth of material remains from her work as an administrator and in national nursing organisations, as a Red Cross official and from her numerous published articles and commentaries. Gunn endeavoured always to promote" better educational standards, shorter hours and more financial support" (110) for nurses and nursing students, without which, she feared, nursing would remain a low status occupation. She believed that the control of nurses' training had to be wrested from the hospital schools and the medical hierarchy and placed under the aegis of the universities, thereby emphasising the science of nursing practice. This is the main theme of the Gunn biography, situating it within Kathryn McPherson's analysis of the transformation in trained nursing during the second and third generations, from 1900 to the Second World War.
within the hospital corridors and elected governments attempting to maintain a low-cost hospital system staffed by captive, unpaid, female nursing students. Gunn's struggle is extended to the recruitment of nurses for military service in the First World War. Concerned that only the best qualified nurses should have the privilege of serving abroad, Gunn and other officers of the Canadian Association of Trained Nurses (CNATN) offered to control the selection of applicants for overseas service through a system of registration. Although directed to proceed with their plan by Prime Minister Borden and the Director General of the Canadian Army Medical Corps, their recommendations were ultimately ignored. The government "knowingly accepting nurses not approved by CNATN" [79]. Although many well-qualified nurses did achieve overseas service, the episode serves to demonstrate how little control nurses had over their own work and status.
Unlike more conventional narrative biography, this book employs the life and passions of its subject as a mirror for the tensions and issues that dominated developments in Canadian nursing in her lifetime. While the personal achievements and disappointments of Jean Gunn's career are recorded, her struggles illuminate the issues both from the broad perspective of a nursing administrator and activist, and the consequent struggles and difficulties confronting aspiring students. Unfortunately this biography is too brief; Jean I. Gunn is based on Nancy Riegler's doctoral dissertation and designed for an academic publication and it does not do justice to the original analysis. Most frustrating is the decision to minimise notes and references "to make this book easier read than the thesis" (9) which in turn minimises its value as a research tool. None the less Jean I. Gunn is a significant contribution to the genre of biographical study in nursing history, going beyond the traditional narrative style and presenting an analysis that both enhances the achievements of its subject and places her within the historical developments she directly influenced.
illustrates the life of a woman who was in many respects a pioneer in public health nursing. Concern for public health, particularly in the area of maternal and infant care, grew significantly during the inter-war years, in part as a consequence of the alarming examples of unfit military recruits for the First World War. In recent years, Canadian women's history has taken a critical look at this phenomenon, examining the programmes and propaganda directed at mothers (Comacchio; Arnup). The front-line workers, the public health nurses, have received much less attention despite the work of Florence Emory, Meryn Stuart and Kari Delhi; there has yet to be a major interpretative study of public health nursing history in Canada. Baldwin's book necessarily concentrates on the life and work of Mona Wilson, who was, for a time between the wars, the only public health care practitioner in the remote regions of Prince Edward Island. Although she had worked with the American Red Cross in Russia and the Balkans prior to this appointment, and later worked in Newfoundland during the Second World War, it was her involvement in the development of a system of public health care in PEI that marked Wilson's career.
Baldwin's research is comprehensive and wide ranging; archival and personal documents are combined with the reminiscences of colleagues, family and friends in personal interviews. While no aspect of Wilson's life is neglected, more attention could have been paid to her work in public health nursing. This would have clarified her role in the development of provincial government social policy; the health care infrastructure in Prince Edward Island was being constructed at the same time as the broader pattern of the Canadian welfare state was also being designed.
the development of public health nursing in the island and Atlantic Canada in general, Baldwin refrains from a critical analysis of the issues and concepts that influenced Wilson's part in this process. Nursing as an evolving profession for women, and its particular influence on the health care system created during Wilson's tenure, is not considered within the context of the history of women's work; there is no examination of the gender and class issues that directly affected how a female health care practitioner was incorporated into the new structures of health care bureaucracy in the province. This in turn limits the inclusion of this study in the wider scope of Canadian nursing history addressed by Kathryn McPherson. While She Answered Every Call adds material to the historical development of public health nursing in Canada, it stops short of situating its subject in the evolution of the policies and practices that she influenced so directly with her work. As with Jean Gunn, however, one individual can be seen to have had a significant effect on events and Mona Wilson's biography contributes new insights into the historical development of public health nursing in Canada.
Diaries of Ella Mae Bongard, R.N., bring new, accessible sources to the study of military and wartime nursing history.
E.A. Landells endeavours to personalise the experience of individual military nurses through the century, from the Great War through to the Gulf War and Somalia. The commentaries from participants in both the earlier and more recent conflicts are few, however, the main focus of the book is on the recollections of Second World War participants. Grouping material by hospital location, the nurses' role in the structure and organisation of each facility, and other personal experiences in that setting, makes it easier to evaluate the information. Most of the accounts are accompanied by photographs and personal service data, a basis for further analysis. The narratives are varied in style and quantity, from brief summaries to rich, anecdotal descriptions of the work, problems and pleasures of wartime nursing. While analysis is left to the reader, the nurses' detailed memories provide sharp insights into the atmosphere, organisation and intensity of wartime nursing. A nurse from Alberta stationed in France, for example, recounts that on a 12-hour shift she would administer "more than 100 injections of penicillin and morphine" (207). The scope of the work, plus the magnitude of the conflict and its consequences, is demonstrated by a nurse's recollection of processing 1,700 patients a day at her hospital in southern Italy, as the fighting raged around them (305). She was amazed to have real eggs on a transport ship that took her from England to Italy, since she had eaten only powdered eggs for three years while posted in England (309).
While these recollections, both grim and humourous, lack the immediacy of diary entries, they are no less valuable. The lack of explanation concerning methodology limits the research value of the narratives but the quality and detail of the data, with its insights into the culture and atmosphere of wartime nursing, helps to fill a void in the much neglected area of Canada's nursing history.
The diaries were recovered from obscurity inside the trunk of nurse Ella Mae Bongard by her son Eric Scott, eight years after her death at age 95. They recount Bongard's experiences with the American Army Nursing Corps from her embarkation in New York in August 1917, through her arrival at a British Base Hospital near the town of Etretat, France and the time spent nursing there, until her return home in February 1919. The editor notes the irony of "a Canadian in the US Army, serving at a British hospital, in France" (ii). The diaries offer stories of personal experiences and observations on topics ranging from the climate, the accommodations and the camaraderie of the wartime nursing experience; they provide a warm and honest view of a young woman's first experience of a wider world in the early twentieth century. Yet, they also offer glimpses into the horrors of the war, the terrible destruction of young men, both allies and enemies, and the back-breaking work and mind-numbing atmosphere of wartime hospital nursing. Nurse Bongard's words reveal the emotional struggle of these unworldly young women, as they come to terms with the courage of the men, accepting the destruction of their bodies in order to satisfy the needs of distant military leaders, no matter how much less glorious the cause than it had once seemed. She also speaks of the delicate balance of relationships between nurses, doctors and patients, at both the personal and professional levels. The editor has generously provided the volume with photographs taken by his mother during her service, as well as mementoes of religious services, social events, base magazines and news clippings. These all contribute to the vitality of Ella Mae Bongard's commentary.
window into the wider experience of military and wartime nursing and is a contribution to the greater understanding of the history of nursing.
Canadian publications like Nobody Ever Wins a War are all the more notable because of their rarity. By contrast British interest in the war has continued unabated over 80 years, with contributions to women's history growing steadily over the past two decades, much of it fuelled by the wealth of archival material preserved in Britain's Imperial War Museum. Eileen Crofton's The Women of Royaumont: A Scottish Women's Hospital on the Western Front, is a recent contribution to the history of British women's medical service during the Great War. Its unexpected references to Canadian women's contributions to the allied war effort direct attention to possible areas of Canadian research.
The Cistercian Abbey of Royaumont, near Paris, was a voluntary hospital during the First World War, funded and supported by the Scottish Women's Hospitals for Foreign Service (SWH), a branch of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies; it was administered and operated entirely by women. A retired physician without previous experience in historical scholarship, Dr Crofton has produced a sound study of this singular achievement. The book first explains the development and functioning of the hospital from 1914 to 1919, then presents a biographical survey of notable staff members. Anecdotal material was gleaned from interviews with family members of Royaumont staff, as well as from diaries and letters of former staff, the hospital records, and newsletters from the post-war Royaumont Association.
vivid of the personal accounts cited in the book. Another Canadian, Dr Edna May Guest of Ontario, worked briefly at Royaumont from June to August, 1918, after seven months' service in another SWH Hospital in Corsica. After the war, Dr Guest was renowned in Canada for her work in preventative medicine and women's health, becoming the first woman to be elected to the Academy of Medicine in Toronto. She was also noted for her promotion of women's ambitions in the medical profession, politics, and public service. Crofton also discusses the 100-bed "Canada Ward" established in the old monks' refectory at Royaumont, funded by the Canadian Red Cross Society, and boasting an enormous Canadian flag hung at one end.
Crofton's analysis of the Royaumont experience is well defined and carefully considered, competently handling issues of gender, race and class. Most of the patients were the French poilus, privates in the French army, including many from French Colonial Africa, while the all-female staff ranged from titled British women serving as orderlies to local French villagers doing sewing or kitchen work. Crofton recognises the professional tensions, including the resentments of the trained nurses who saw unqualified orderlies undermining their authority and status; she questions the apparent insensitivity of Dr Frances Ivens, chief physician and commandant, who disregarded the nurses' concerns, despite her otherwise active promotion of the rights and ambitions of medical women. Although Women of Royaumont does not qualify as a Canadian study, it describes a wartime experience in which Canadian women were actively involved, and offers a small addition to the much neglected history of Canadian women's medical and nursing contributions to the Great War.
New methods do not negate the value of biography as an historical tool, but call for a more analytic approach. Whether in the development of a new society, in the crisis of war, or the construction of the modern urban, commercial-industrial landscape, nurses have been present, as volunteer caregivers or trained professionals. Recognition of nursing's role as a part of the history of women's work can only advance the scholarship of Canadian social, political and economic history.
Notes
(f.1) For the single historical survey devoted to Canadian military nursing, see G.W.L. Nicholson, Canada's Nursing Sisters. There are only brief references to nursing in Ruth Roach Pierson's "They're Still Women After All."
(f.2) See an early recollection by Mabel Brown Clint called Our Bit. More recent, but brief, is A.J.B. Johnston's "Into the Great War."
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