Current Research in
Soil Fertility
Volume - 2
Chief Editor Dr. Ram Lakhan Ram
Scientist-C, P-4, Tasar Silkworm Breeding Station, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Government of India, Chakradharpur, West Singhbhum
District, Jharkhand, India
AkiNik Publications New Delhi
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© AkiNik Publications Publication Year: 2020 Pages: 186
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Contents
Chapters Page No.
1. Uses of Mulching in Agriculture: A Review 01-32
(R. Kannan, A. Solaimalai, P. Anandan and T. Suthin Raj)
2. Municipal Solid Waste: Management and MSW Compost
Impact on Soil Fertility 33-62
(Ramya Krishna Koka, Kiran Pilli, Shreya Das and Kaila Tara Meghana)
3. Soil Fertility and Mineral Nutrition of Plants 63-78
(Amarjeet Kumar, Ajeet Kumar, Bipin Bihari and Mehjabeen Qasmi)
4. Soil Organic Matter 79-93
(Ganpat Louhar, Kavitha P Jadhav, Ragini S Patil and Athulya S)
5. Fertility and Agro Potentiality of Sewage Sludge: A Review 95-114
(Baby Akula)
6. Characterizing Soils on Granitic Landscapes for Agridevelopment in Shidlaianakote Village of Chitradurga
District, Karnataka 115-147
(B.P. Bhaskar, S.C. Ramesh Kumar, Sunil Maske, Rajendra Hegde, M. Lalitha and B.P. Laximikantha)
7. Gully Erosion and Land Degradation 149-167
(Chandrakala M., Srinivasan R. and Karthika K.S.)
8. Land Degradation 169-186
(Ragini S Patil, Kavitha P Jadhav, Ganpat Louhar and Athulya S)
Chapter - 1
Uses of Mulching in Agriculture: A Review
Authors R. Kannan
Assistant Professor (Plant Pathology), Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University,
Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India A. Solaimalai
Associate Professor (Agronomy), AICRP on Dryland Agriculture, Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti,
Tamil Nadu, India P. Anandan
Assistant Professor (Agronomy), Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University, Annamalai
Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India T. Suthin Raj
Assistant Professor (Plant Pathology), Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University,
Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India
Chapter - 1
Uses of Mulching in Agriculture: A Review
R. Kannan, A. Solaimalai, P. Anandan and T. Suthin Raj
Abstract
In rainfed area, judicious use of water is essential for increasing area under crop production with limited water supply. Therefore, uses of moisture conservation measures are essential under such situation. Mulching has been advocated as an effective means for conserving soil moisture. It works as an insulating barrier which checks evaporation from soil surface. Mulching is a technique in which the use of organic materials (plant residues-straw, hay, groundnut hulls, leaf and compost, peat, wood products-saw dust and animal manures), and synthetic materials (paper, polyethylene, wax coated papers, aluminium, steel foils and asphalt spray emulsions etc.) with or without shallow tillage, for the purpose of increasing soil productivity is involved.
This technique is very useful in protecting the roots of the plants from heat, cold or drought or to keep fruit clean. It checks evaporation and modifies the soil and air microclimate in which a plant is growing. Mulch is used to cover soil surface around the plants to create congenial condition for the growth.
This may include temperature moderation, salinity and weed control. It exerts decisive effects on earliness, yield and quality of the crop. Mulching is also applicable to most field crops. Most commonly used agricultural mulch is black plastic. Clear plastic mulch is used in some areas due to its increased soil warming characteristics. Weed control beneath the mulch is a deterrent to its use. White or aluminum reflective mulch is used where soil cooling is desired, such as establishing fall crops during the heat of summer. Crop residues used as mulching are well known to reduce soil evaporation, increase soil water, decrease diurnal soil temperature variations and increase saturated soil hydraulic conductivity. Use of organic mulch is a proven source of crop nutrition over a period in crop growth and also suppresses weeds and reduces evaporation loss in aerobic system. Mulch can improve water productivity and yield through increase in water retention. Mulch enhance moisture availability period, reduce evaporation loss of water and maintain soil temperature. However, in India use of plastic film as mulch in
agricultural field is still at a conceptual stage. Congenial environmental conditions determine the growth and flowering behaviour of crops. Mulch increased soil organic matter and soil moisture contents but decreased bulk density and soil strength compared to control. The effects of mulch on soil temperature, moisture regime and root growth as well as yield depend on the micro-environment, made of mulch application and quality and quantity of mulch materials. Mulching plays an important role in production of agricultural crops in the current scenario of declining water table, soil degradation and climate change. The main objectives of mulching are to prevent loss of water by evaporation, prevention of soil erosion, weed control, to reduce fertilizer leaching, to promote soil productivity, to enhance yield and quality of field and fruit crops. So, mulching is useful to save our underground water resource, soil and environment for sustainable crop production. In this review paper, the literature clearly shows pronounced effects of mulching on soil health by improving the soil structure, soil fertility, biological activities, avoid soil degradation in addition to moisture conservation, regulating temperature, encouraging change in favourable micro-climate, check weed growth and ultimately increasing the productivity, quality, profitability and sustainability of crops and cropping systems irrespective of the system. Natural materials such as cereal straw, flax straw, nonwoven wool, or pine needles have also been tried, with success varying according to species, environmental conditions and the nature of the organic materials used.
Keywords: soil conservation, soil erosion, mulch, polyethylene, microclimate, crop residue, organic matter
Introduction
Any material spread at surface of soil to assist soil and water conservation and soil productivity is called mulch. The word mulch has been probably derived from the German word “molch” means soft to decay, which apparently referred to the use of straw and leaves by gardeners as a spread over the ground as mulch (Jacks et al., 1955). Rowe-Dutton and Patricia (1957) defined mulching as an application of layer of covering material on the soil surface. Bhavani (1960) stated that mulching appears to be a very ancient Chinese practice employed to conserve the scanty supply of moisture available for growing melons. To achieve optimum advantage from the mulch, the mulch should be applied immediately after germination of crop @5t/ha (organic mulch). The practice of applying mulches to soil is possibly as old as agriculture itself. Mulches are used for various reasons but water conservation and erosion control are the most important objective for
its use in agriculture in dry regions. Other reason for high mulching use includes soil temperature modification, soil conservation, nutrient addition, improvement in soil structure and weed control. Mulching reduces the deterioration of soil by way of preventing the runoff and soil loss, minimizes the weed infestation and checks the water evaporation. Thus, it facilitates more retention of soil moisture and helps in control of temperature fluctuations, improves physical, chemical and biological properties of soil, as it adds nutrients to the soil and ultimately enhances the growth and yield of crops (Dilip Kumar et al., 1990).
Those most frequently used include plant residues such as straw, hay, peanut hulls, leaf mold and compost, wood products such as sawdust, wood chips and shavings and animal manures. Organic mulch properly utilized can perform all the benefits of any mulch with the possible exception of early season soil warming. However, natural mulch materials are often not available in adequate quantities for commercial operations or must be transported to the place of use. Natural materials cannot be easily spread on growing crops and require considerable hand labour. Organic mulches have the advantage of being biodegradable, but decomposition may result in a temporary reduction in soil mineral nitrogen. In addition, the natural phytotoxins released when organic materials decompose may not only inhibit the growing of weeds but also the crop plants (Vos and Sumarni, 1997).
Inorganic mulch includes plastic mulch and accounts for the greatest volume of mulch use in commercial crop production. The plastic materials used as mulch are poly vinyl chloride or polyethylene films. Owing to its greater permeability to long wave radiation it can increase temperature around the plants during night in winter. Hence, polyethylene film mulch is preferred as mulching material for crop production. Now a day application of black plastic mulch film is becoming popular and very good results have been achieved particularly in rainfed agriculture. Use of polyethylene mulch has been reported to conserve soil moisture appreciably. Hence, under prevailing drought and water scarcity conditions, conservation of soil moisture and to ensure availability of soil moisture to crop is of much importance. The black polyethylene mulch also checks all types of weeds in addition to soil moisture conservation, therefore, black plastic mulch is more beneficial (Mohapatra et al., 1999). Plastic mulches have various beneficial effects on crop product in arid regions, including an increase in soil temperature the conservation of soil moisture, texture and fertility and the control of weeds, pests and diseases (Ravi and Lourduraj, 1996).
Black polyethylene mulches are used for weed control in a range of crops under the organic system of crop production. The use of black polypropylene woven mulch is usually restricted to perennial crops. Various colours of woven and solid film plastics have been tested for weed control in the field (Horowitz, 1993). There are additional environmental benefits if the mulch is made from recycled materials (Cooke, 1996).
Effect of mulches on soil and plants Conserve soil moisture
The conservation of soil moisture through mulching is one of the important purposes. The micro-climatic conditions are favourably affected by optimum degree of soil moisture. When soil surface is covered with mulch helps to prevent weed growth, reduce evaporation and increase infiltration of rain water during growing season. It provides many benefits to crop production through soil and water conservation, enhanced soil biological activity and improved chemical and physical properties of the soil (Cooper, 1973). Adeoye (1984) recorded high moisture content up to a depth of 60 cm in grass-mulched soil together with good infiltration and reduced evaporation. According Bhelia (1988) increased plant dry weight for mulched plants is due to the capabilities of mulch to maintain soil moisture as well as increased efficiency in water uptake by plants. Rathore et al.
(1998) reported that more water conserves in the soil profile during the early growth period with straw mulch than without it. Sutagundi (2000) reported that treatment receiving straw mulch recorded significantly higher net returns (Rs. 30,894 /ha) and B: C ratio (1.80) compared to control as result of soil water conservation. Hatfield et al. (2001) reported a 34-50%
reduction in soil water evaporation as a result of crop residue mulching.
Mulch slows down evaporation and reduces the irrigation requirement (Anonymous, 2003). Liu et al. (2002), Chawla (2006), Khurshid et al.
(2006) and Muhammad et al. (2009) stated the same results that mulching improves the ecological environment of the soil and increases soil water contents. Orzolek et al. (1993) observed that use of polyethylene mulch in the field, increase in the soil temperature especially in early spring, reduced weed problems, increased moisture conservation, reduction in certain insect pest, higher crop yield and more efficient use of soil nutrients.
Reduce infiltration rate
Mulching increase the total intake of water due to formation of loose soil surface. The rain drops on mulched soil do not seal the particles as they do on unmulched soil. This sealing effect of rain drops results in more loss
of water through erosion. The water infiltrated in soil can be utilized by crops thereby crop yields are increased. Mulches obstruct the solar radiation reaching to soil. Infiltration and soil evaporation are among the key processes that determine soil water availability to crops in semi-arid agriculture. The presence of crop residue mulch at the soil-atmosphere interface has a direct influence on infiltration of rainwater into the soil and evaporation from the soil. Mulch cover reduces surface runoff and holds rainwater at the soil surface thereby giving it more time to infiltrate into the soil. Straw mulch conserved higher soil moisture to an extent of 55% more compared to control (Rajput R.K., Singh, 1970). Average available soil moisture stored up to 1.5 m depth of soil increased significantly by mulching of wheat residue @6730kg/ha compared to bare soil (Black, 1973). In Zimbabwe, mulching significantly reduced surface runoff and infiltration (Erenstein, 2002; Dahiya et al., 2003).
Reduce run-off and soil erosion
Soils from dry region are highly susceptible to water erosion and wind erosion because rainfall occurrence is frequent during intense storms and surface is not adequately protected by vegetation which effectively retards runoff. Therefore, to reduce erosions by wind and water is an important reason for using mulches in dry regions. Crop residues when applied at adequate level increase infiltration rate. Decomposition of these residues results in improving soil aggregation and suitability for crop production.
Mulching the soil surface reduce velocity of runoff, evaporation and increase the amount of water stored in the soil profile (Mahrer et al., 1984). Mulch can effectively minimize water vapour loss, soil erosion, weed problems and nutrient (Van Derwerken and Wilcox, 1988).
Reduce weed growth
By providing a physical barrier, mulching reduces the germination and nourishment of many weeds. If somehow weeds are growing, they become pale and ultimately die. Mulching materials such as wheat straw, dry grasses and saw dust are good in this respect. The mulching favours the reduction of evaporation leading to higher soil moisture content, a reduction in weed growth and the decomposition of added mulches might have also contributed to increase the supply of nutrients and moisture for overall increase in crop yields (Vander Zaag et al., 1986). Covering or mulching the soil surface can prevent weed seed germination or physically suppress seedling emergence.
Loose materials like straw, bark and composted municipal green waste can provide effective weed control (Merwin et al., 1995). Saw dust is a
wonderful soil improver and weed suppressor as it conserves soil moisture, decreases run-off, increases infiltration and percolation, decreases evaporation, etc. and weed growth can be substantial under clear mulch (Waterer, 2000).
Maintain soil temperature
Mulching reduces soil temperature in summer and raises it in winter. It prevents the extremes of temperatures. During summer, mulching conserves the soil moisture due to reduced evaporation. The cooling effect of soil promotes root development. In general, the effect of mulching on the temperature regime of the soil varies according to the capacity of the mulching material to reflect and transmit solar energy. Mulches results in greater water content and lower the evaporation. However effects on soil temperature are highly variable. White mulches decrease soil temperature while clear plastic mulches increase soil temperature. Chen and Yin (1989) reported that the plastic mulching increased soil temperature by 0.9 to 4.3 ºC at the seedling stage, 1.6 to 2.3 ºC at the bud initiation stage and 0.8 to 1.9 ºC at the flowering stage. The findings of Duhr and Dubas (1990) showed an increase of 2.9-3.3 oC in soil temperatures with transparent, photodegradable polythene film mulching. Wheat straw mulch raised the soil temperature by 2-3 oC (Devi Dayal et al., 1991). The soil temperature can be higher up to 7
oC under clear mulch compared to bare soil (Ham et al., 1993). Park et al.
(1996) observed an increase of 2.4 oC in average soil temperature at 15cm depth under transparent film and an increase of 0.8 oC under black film. Choi and Chung (1997), who have observed that thermostats placed at soil surface recorded increase in soil temperatures by 2.8-9.4 oC and 0.9-7.3 oC at 5cm depth. Plastic mulching has many advantages for agriculture including maintaining soil temperature and humidity, preventing soil borne diseases and attack by soil pests and speeding up growth. At night, condensation on the underside of the mulch absorbs the long wave radiation emitted by the soil thereby slowing cooling of the soil. The ability of clear mulches to produce soil temperatures high enough to control weeds, plant pathogens and nematodes forms the basis for the soil solarization process.
Crop growth and yield
The effects of mulches on plants are operative through the effects of mulches on soil water, soil temperature structure and erosion. Reduced evaporation is major reason for the growth of the plants and there by high crop production due to mulch. Mulching provides a favourable environment for growth. A combination of the above, and perhaps other factors, results in
more vigorous, healthier plants which may be more resistant to pest injury.
Therefore, mulched plants usually grow and mature more uniformly than unmulched plants. Increase in soil temperature and moisture content stimulate root growth which leads to greater plant growth [86]. Using black plastic mulch for growing dahlia is also beneficial as it improves growth, flowering and tuberous root formation, as well as cuts down weeding [101]. Mulching with saw dust and reflective film stimulate foliage growth and root development. Clarkson and Frazier (1957) and Chen and Katan (1980) have reported a significant increase in vegetation and yield of different crops using mulch.
Rice
Ali et al. (2013) recorded maximum 1000 seed weight and panicle length cm (21.52) in aerobic rice in treatment with polythene sheet mulch in comparison with treatments (weed free (no mulch), maize stover @ 5 t/ha and wheat straw mulch @ 5 t/ha).
Table 1: Effect of residue on grain, straw, biological yields and harvest index of rice
Residue application Grain yield (t/ha)
Straw yield (t/ha)
Biological yield (t/ha)
Harvest index (%)
Bare soil 3.30 6.96 10.25 32.1
Sesbania mulch @10 t/ha 3.51 7.33 10.84 32.3
Leucaena mulch @10 t/ha 3.64 7.54 11.19 32.5
Transplanted rice 3.95 7.81 11.76 33.5
CD 5% 0.33 0.507 0.800 NS
(Meena and Singh, 2018). Mulching was applied after germination of rice crop At New Delhi, with green mulching all yield attributes, viz. effective tillers, panicle length, panicle weight and 1000-grain weight were significantly higher in transplanted rice than other treatments (Table 1).
Higher grain (3.95 t/ha), straw and biological yield were obtained with transplanted rice treatment in basmati aerobic rice (Meena and Singh, 2018).
Sorghum
Favorable effects of mulching on yield were reported by Bhan et al.
(1995) in rainfed sorghum (cv. Varsha). Mehmood et al. (2014) recorded that mulch had significant effect on the grain yield in sorghum, poultry manure produced maximum grain yield (2.51 t/ha) that was statistically similar to wheat straw (2.50 t/ha). Minimum grain yield (2.38 t/ha) was recorded for control.
Table 2: Effect of mulching on growth and yield of Rabi sorghum (cv. M 35-1)
Treatments
Plant height (cm)
Grain yield (kg/ha)
Soil temperature
(oC)
Soil moisture
(%)
Water use efficiency (kg/cm/ha) Sugarcane trash mulch 198.0 2804 21.3 12.23 37.37
Wheat straw mulch 176.2 2715 20.7 11.24 36.67 Soybean straw mulch 174.6 2675 20.3 10.71 36.39 Interculturing operation 167.7 2582 20.0 10.26 35.35 Control (no mulch) 147.3 24.89 19.6 9.71 34.41 (Chavan et al., 2010)
At Parbhani (Maharashtra), increase in soil moisture in sugarcane trash mulch, wheat straw mulch, soybean straw mulch and interculturing operation over control (no mulch) was 28.19, 17.81, 12.26 and 7.54%, respectively (Table 2). Soil temperature observed in sugarcane trash mulch, wheat straw mulch, soybean straw mulch, interculturing operation and control (no mulch) was 19.58, 20.04, 20.37, 20.73and 21.33 oC, respectively. Increase in grain yield in sugarcane trash mulch, wheat straw mulch, soybean straw mulch and interculturing operation over control (no mulch) was 12.64, 9.06, 7.46 and 3.74%, respectively (Chavan et al., 2010).
Cumbu
Table 3: Effect of mulching on yield parameters and yield of rainfed cumbu
Mulching Tillers/plant Ear head length (cm)
Ear head diameter (cm)
Grain yield (kg/ha)
Stover yield (kg/ha)
Dust mulch 3.72 16.34 1.42 1503 2604
Straw mulch 4.20 18.56 1.61 1955 3391
Plastic mulch 4.81 20.84 1.83 2236 3875
S. Em ± 0.05 0.21 0.02 21.92 37.42
CD(P=0.05) 0.14 0.63 0.06 66.07 112.78
(Sushila et al., 2017)
At Bikaner, application of plastic mulch proved effective in enhancing yield attributes, grain and straw yield under rainfed condition during kharif season (Table 3) (Sushila et al., 2017).
Wheat
Sharma et al. (1985) reported that grain yield of rainfed wheat was on par in case of soil and straw (Sorghum cob husk) mulch but superior to no mulch. Li et al. (1999) investigated the positive effects of clear plastic film on spring wheat yield. Niu et al. (1998) showed that improved soil water and
temperature with polythene mulches enhanced seedling emergence in spring wheat. The greater soil profile moisture under mulch has important implications on the utilization of water by crop and on soil reactions that control the availability of nutrients and biological nitrogen fixation.
Mulching increased yield of maize by 9-12% and that of the following wheat by 25-28%. The increase in wheat yield with mulching in the previous crop of maize is attributable to greater residual moisture after maize particularly in the seed-zone and enrichment of soil with nutrients (Prihar et al., 1981). At New Delhi, rice husk (RH) was found to be superior in maintaining optimum soil moisture condition for crop use. The residual soil moisture was also minimum, indicating effective utilization of moisture by the crop under RH. The plant water status, as evaluated by relative water content and leaf water potential were favourable under RH. Specific leaf weight, root length density and dry biomass were also greater in this treatment. Optimum soil and canopy thermal environment of wheat with limited fluctuations were observed under RH, even during dry periods. This produced comparable yield with less water use, enhancing the water use efficiency in a sandy loam soil in a sandy loam soil (Chakraborty et al., 2008).
Table 4: Yield attributes, grain yield and straw yield of wheat as influenced by mulch and antitranspirant
Treatments Ear length (cm)
Grains /ears
l000-grain weight (g)
Harvest index
Effective tillers
Yield (kg/ha) Grain Straw Control 6.45 45.77 36.29 0.365 117.60 2029 3619
Mulch 6.56 47.11 36.57 0.378 128.94 2141 3751 Antitranspirant 6.69 49.05 38.65 0.356 126.00 2215 3486
CD 5% NS 2.35 1.62 0.006 7.45 112 195
(Ranjita et al., 2007)
At Dharwad, grain yield was higher (2215 kg /ha) in kaolin 6% spray at 49 DAS over control but was on par with finger millet straw mulch 6 t/ha spread on 30 DAS (Table 4). Growth and yield attributing characters differed significantly due to the application of straw mulch and antitranspirant (Ranjita et al., 2007). Mishra (1996) reported that application of straw mulch, the growth parameters, yield and yield components of wheat can be improved due to efficient use of water.
Ahmed et al. (2007) reported that application of mulch significantly increased the number of tillers in wheat as compared to control. The mulch application @ 1, 2, 3 and 4 t /ha produced statistically same number of tillers
m-2 but different from control. Birru et al., (2013) recorded that 6 t/ha FYM gave higher grain yield in wheat (4195 kg/ha) whereas the 6 t/ha straw mulching resulted in the lowest grain (2942 kg/ha) and biomass (10.7 t/ha) yields. This is might be due to below optimum soil temperature that influences crop growth. Chen et al., (2007) reported reduction in grain yield of winter wheat by 7% with 6 t/ha straw mulching as compared to the control. Masanta et al. (2009) concluded that white polythene mulch found to be better in grain yield as compared to black polythene, paddy straw and forest leaf mulch. Hence, grain yield of wheat under white polythene mulch was significantly higher in both the years (avg. 4017 kg /ha) which were 123% higher than the control plot. At Ludhiana (Punjab), Ram et al. (2013) reported that significant increase in grain yield due to mulching was significant up to 4 t/ha treatment only, which increased the yield by 20.2 and 25.9% over the mulch treatment within three years. Straw mulching can decrease soil evaporation, reduce water consumption, and increase crop yield and water use efficiency significantly compared to no mulch in wheat-maize relay cropping (Wen Yin et al. 2015).
Maize
In red loamy soil of Bangalore, Upadhyaya (1979) had observed that mulching with straw plus polythene reduced the total consumptive use of water by 22% over control in maize. Favorable effects of mulching on yield were reported by Gupta and Bhan (1993) in rainfed maize. Wicks et al.
(1994) and Khurshid et al. (2006) pointed out that maize grew taller under greater mulch levels, because of availability of more soil moisture contents for plant growth. Grass mulching increased grain yield by 15-22% in maize and by about 10 per cent in millet in northern Guinea and Sudan savanna regions of Nigeria (Adeoye, 1984). Tolk et al. (1999) and Liu et al. (2002) concluded that mulch increases soil moisture and nutrients availability to plant roots, in turn, leading to higher grain yield. Muhammad et al. (2009) observed that mulched treatments show significantly greater total uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium than corresponding unmulched ones.
Zamir et al. (2012) significantly recorded maximum number of grains per cob in maize was (532.66) in zero tillage + wheat straw mulch which was statistically at par with those of 521.66 in sub soiler tillage + saw dust mulch.
Minimum value 453.44 was observed in bar harrow tillage + wheat straw mulch which was statistically at par with those of zero tillage + saw dust mulch (460.44) and zero tillage, respectively.
Yaseen et al. (2014) showed that maximum grain yield (4.00 Mg/ha) was observed in mulching @ 15 t/ha and minimum (2.59 Mg ha-1) was
found in case of control. Uwah et al., (2011) reported that dry stover yield in maize increased significantly with each increment in mulch rate up to the 6 t/ha but not further in the two seasons. Mean maximum dry stover yield (24.29 t/ha) was obtained at 8 t/ha mulch rate, followed by 21.62 t/ha obtained at 6 t/ha mulch rate. The 4 and 2 t/ha mulch rates however, produced 17.82 t/ha and 15.82 t/ha dry stover yield respectively. Increasing the mulch rates from zero to 2, 4, 6 and 8 t/ha resulted in corresponding increases in dry stover yield by 19.0, 34.3, 63.4 and 83.5% respectively.
Pervaiz et al., (2009) concluded that mulch significantly increased grain yield in maize. Maximum grain yield was observed in mulch @ 14 Mg/ha (10.5 Mg/ha), followed by mulch @ 7 Mg/ha (9.4 Mg/ha) and minimum in control (8.6 Mg/ha). Din et al.(2013) reported that higher grain yield of 2258 kg/ha was resulted in wheat straw mulch while no mulch treatments showed lower grain yield of 2014 kg/ ha in non-irrigated condition. Bhatt et al.
(2005) observed maximum grain yield (5.16 t/ha) was in rice straw mulch @ 4 t/ha but different from wheat and maize straw mulch @ 4 t /ha which were statistically at par with each other whereas minimum grain yield (4.17 t/ha) was recorded from no mulch treatment. Singh et al. (2015) reported that mulching proved beneficial for crop growth because of complex change in soil environment through modifying soil temperature, reduction in evaporation, weed competition, soil compaction.
In Ningxia (China), ridges and furrows with 0.08 mm plastic film mulching significantly increased soil moisture storage in the top 0-100cm layer and the topsoil temperature (0-10cm) during the corn-growing season.
Combining ridges and furrows with mulching further improved the rain harvesting, moisture retaining, and yield increasing effects in furrows.
Compared with conventional flat bed, yield increased by 1497 kg to 2937 kg /ha using Ridges and furrows with different mulching treatments and the WUE increased by 2.3 kg/ha/mm to 5.1 kg /ha mm (Xiaolong et al., 2015).
Table 5: Effect of mulching on yield parameters, yield and water use efficiency of maize
Treatment
Yield (kg/ha)
100 seed weight
(g)
Seeds/
ear ET (mm)
WUE (kg/ha /mm) Ridges with
mulching
Furrows with mulching
0.08 mm plastic film 0.08 mm plastic film 7534a 32.2a 353a 400.2 18.5a 0.08 mm plastic film corn straw
(9000 kg/ha) 6664b 30.7a 322b 408.8 15.8b 0.08 mm plastic film 8% biodegradable film 7342a 31.2a 354a 399.4 18.1a 0.08 mm plastic film liquid film 7053ab 29.3a 360a 394.3 17.6a
0.08 mm plastic film Bare furrow 6094c 26.5a 344a 381.7 15.7b Conventional flatbed (control) 4597d 23.9a 288c 336.1 13.4c (Xiaolong et al., 2015)
At Dharwad (Karnataka), wheat straw mulching at 5 t/ha after sowing recorded significantly higher grain yield (66.28 q/ha) over no mulching and was on par with sunn hemp brown manuring (two rows 20 cm spacing upto 30 DAS and sunn hemp was knocked down with the use of 2, 4-D spray at 0.5 kg/ha) (64.27 q/ha) (Table 5) (Ajamirali and Halagalimath, 2017).
Pulse crops
Bhallacharya et al., (1996) observed that leaf mulches of acacia gave significantly highest mean maximum LAI value (2.3) followed by Gliricidia (1.3), chan (1.3) and no-mulch (1.1) in black gram. The greater soil profile moisture under mulch has important implications on the utilization of water by crop and on soil reactions that control the availability of nutrients and biological nitrogen fixation (Surya et al., 2000). Amini et al., (2013) concluded that in lentil mulch @ 2 t/ha recorded significantly higher grain yield (89.4 g/m2) and minimum grain yield (80.1 g/m2) in no mulch.
Mulching significantly increased the number of pods per plant compared to the control in moong crop (Kumer et al., 1995). At Faizabad (Uttar Pradesh), dust mulching (manipulation of soil with khurpi after each irrigation) significantly reduced density and dry weight of weeds. However, plant growth characters, number of root nodules/plant and yield attributes significantly increased resulting in significantly higher grain yield (1270 kg/ha) of summer green gram. The increase in grain yield under dust mulching, wheat straw mulching 15 t/ha and rice straw mulching 15 t/ha was 45.01, 27.18, 22.35% respectively no mulching (Verma et al., 2008).
Increase in yield attributes under mulching might be due to favourable environment in winter pigeon pea (Gajera et al., 1998).
Table 6: Effect of density, pattern of sowing and plastic mulching on growth, yield parameters and yield of pigeonpea
Treatments
Plant height (cm)
Lai Pods/
plant
Days to 50%
flowering Seed yield (kg/ha) Sowing with 120cm × 20cm spacing 132.0 2.37 259 90 1548 Sowing with spacing of 180/60cm × 20 cm
as paired rows with plastic mulch in pairs 153.1 2.62 411 79 2210 Sowing with spacing of 120/60cm × 20 cm
as paired rows with plastic mulch in pairs 141.5 3.60 445 78 2302
Sowing with spacing of 90/30cm × 20 cm
as paired rows with plastic mulch in pairs 144.8 4.36 367 78 2104
CD 5% NS 0.68 46.9 3.6 430
(Swathi et al., 2018)
At Tirupati, reproductive growth characters like number of pods per plant, pod yield per plant and seed yield was higher under plastic mulch when compared to planting without mulch (Table 6) (Swathi et al., 2018).
Table 1: Grain yield, water use and water use efficiency in blackgram under different leaf mulches
Mulches Grain yield
(q/ha)
Water use (mm)
WUE (kg/ha-mm)
No mulch 3.50 137 0.27
leaves of Gliricidia maculate @10t/ha 5.23 119 0.44 leaves of Acacia auriculiformis @10t/ha 7.03 128 0.55 Chan grass (Saccharum sp.) @ 10t/ha 3.70 102 0.37
CD 5% 0.70 - -
(Bhallacharya et al., 1999) WUE: Water use efficiency
At Tripura, leaf mulch of Acacia auriculiformis produced significantly higher grain yield (7.03 q/ha) of black gram and improved water use efficiency (0.55 kg/ha mm) followed by Gliricidia maculata leaf and chan grass (Bhallacharya et al., 1999).
Table 7: Effect of mulching on plant height, branches/plant, pods/plant, grain yield and B: C ratio of Chickpea
Treatments
Plant height (cm)
Branc hes/
plant
Pods/plant Grain
yield (q/ha)
Net income (Rs/ha)
B: C ratio Karanj leaf mulch 47.76 3.85 48.60 10.14 13270.00 1.89 Straw mulch 44.76 3.40 38.50 7.35 7770.00 1.12 Dust mulch 40.10 3.13 33.60 6.25 5560.00 0.80 combination of Karanj leaf
mulch + dust mulch 46.35 3.55 45.85 8.56 10120.00 1.45 combination of straw mulch +
dust mulch 41.96 3.30 35.20 7.88 8900.00 1.30 Control (No mulch) 36.25 2.80 30.65 4.74 2580.00 0.37
CD 5% 5.96 0.23 6.31 2.65 - -
(Daleshwar and Prasad, 2017)
At Darisai (Jharkhand), maximum grain yield (10.14 q/ha) was recorded in mulch with karanj leaf followed by combination of karanj leaf and dust mulch (8.56 q/ha) and both these treatments were significantly better than the others. Soil moisture content (15.40%) in 20-30 cm depth at the time of
harvest was higher in karanj mulching and minimum (11.77%) in control (without mulch) (Table 7). Higher net income (Rs 13270/ha) and B: C ratio (1.89) was obtained for mulching with karanj leaf (Daleshwar and Prasad, 2017).
Oilseed crops
Chen (1985) also reported high water content in the top 5 cm of soil (an increase of 4.7 per cent in clayey, 3.1% in loamy and 0.8-1.8 per cent in sandy soil) with polythene mulch from sowing to the emergence of groundnut seedlings. Ramakrishna et al. (1991) reported that effective weed control resulted in improved yield parameters and yield of groundnut.
Proline content was significantly enhanced due to polythene mulch in groundnut (Mahalle et al., 2007). Devi Dayal et al. (1991) observed early flowering (by 5 days) in mulch treated groundnut crop. Hu et al. (1995) recorded earlier seedling emergence, improved crop growth and nodule development in groundnut. Cheong et al. (1995) observed highly positive correlation of proportion of sound seeds, 100-seed weight and shelling ratio with seed yield of groundnut, while Choi and Chung (1997) recorded more flowers, pegs, pods and kernels and greater 100-kernal mass in polythene mulched plots than on the unmulched plots in Suwon, Korea.
Park et al. (1996) recorded seed yield increase in soybean by 18 per cent with transparent film and by 15% with black film. Gao et al., (2013) reported that leaf area of soybean increased with the increase in quantity of wheat straw mulch. Minimum leaf area (14.86 cm2) was recorded in the control treatment and higher (20.20 cm2) was noted in wheat straw mulch applied at the rate of 7500 kg/ha. Ramakrishna et al., (2006) concluded that polythene mulched plots produced higher yields in groundnut, 94.5% higher than the unmulched plots, 46.8% higher than chemically mulched plots and 25.5%
higher than plots mulched with rice straw.
Table 8: Effect of mulches on dry pod yield and dry haulm yield of summer groundnut
Mulching Dry pod
yield (kg/ha)
Dry haulm yield (kg/ha)
Net monetary returns (Rs/ha) Black polythene mulch micron with
drip 3932 4282 90720
Transparent polythene mulch 30
micron with drip 4370 4647 95881
Soybean straw mulch 5 t/ha with drip 3492 3823 75600
Control 2979 3380 84579
CD 5% 364 463 12572
(Kamble et al., 2018)
At Parbhani (Maharashtra), transparent polythene mulch recorded significantly higher dry pod yield and dry haulm yield over rest of the treatments (Table 8) (Kamble et al., 2018).
Table 9: Yield parameters and yield of sunflower as influenced by mulching
Treatments Head
diameter (cm) Seeds /head
Seed weight per head (g)
Oil content (%)
Oil yield (kg/ha)
No mulch 10.09 565 20.83 40.69 654
Mulch with maize straw
6 t/ha 13.61 590 22.50 40.37 691
Mulch with transparent
polythene 7 micron 13.99 634 23.73 40.71 744
CD 5% 0.44 41 0.99 29
(Raghupati et al., 2010)
At Dharwad (Karnataka), significantly higher head diameter, number of seeds per head and seed weight per head was recorded in mulch with polythene over rest of the treatments. Similar trends were also observed in growth components (Table 9) (Raghupati et al., 2010).
Table 9: Effect of mulch on RUE, yield attributes, net income and benefit cost ratio of soybean (cv RKS 18)
Treatment Pods/plant 100 grain weight (g)
RUE (kg/ha/
mm)
Seed yield (kg/ha)
Net income (Rs. /ha)
B:C ratio Straw mulch @ 5 t/ha 57.4 12.79 3.30 1219 38062 1.45 Control (No mulch) 47.0 12.18 2.72 1006 30227 1.39
CD 5% 4.8 0.53 0.38 112 - -
(Sanbagavalli et al., 2017). RUE: Rainfall use efficiency
At Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu), application of bajra straw mulch @ 5 t/ha has increased growth vigour, dry matter production (6.8 g/plant), crop growth rate (11.61 g/m2/day), pods (57.4/plant) and better yield of soybean (1219 kg/ha) and B: C ratio (1.45) 17.4% yield of soybean compared to without application of mulching material during kharif season (Table 9) (Sanbagavalli et al., 2017).
Table 10: Effect of mulching on yield attributes and yields of rapeseed and mustard
Mulch
Siliqua length
(cm.)
Siliqua/
plant
Seeds/
siliqua
1000 seed weight
(g)
Grain yield (kg/ha)
Stover yield (kg/ha)
Harvest index
(%) No mulch 5.30 107.50 13.24 5.53 1154 4364 20.91 Water hyacinth
mulch 5.75 207.27 13.78 7.81 1419 4975 22.16
Paddy straw mulch 5.59 188.13 13.65 7.17 1357 4861 21.81 Legume straw mulch 5.53 179.33 13.49 6.85 1297 4762 21.40
CD 5% 0.13 21.42 0.20 0.53 67 82 0.90
(Manoj Kumar et al., 2014)
At Brakachha (Bihar), growth and yield attributes viz. plant height, number of leaf per plant, number of primary and secondary branch per plant, total dry matter accumulation per plant, siliqua length, number of siliqua per plant, number of siliqua per seed, 1000 grain weight, seed yield, stover yield and harvest index found higher under reduced tillage and water hyacinth mulch in comparison to remaining treatments (Manoj Kumar et al., 2014).
Cotton
Ravi and Lourduraj (1996) observed significantly higher mean number of sympodia per plant (7.0), number of bolls per plant (7.8) and kapas yield (673 kg/ha) in black LLDPE mulch compared to coir pith, organic mulch and no mulch. In Ludhiana (Punjab), rice straw mulch @ 6 t/ha lowered down the maximum and minimum soil temperatures at 5cm depth by 1.9 to 6.9 °C and by 0.4 to 1.6 °C, respectively. The soil temperature amplitude narrowed down by 0.9 to 7.1 °C. Seasonal fluctuation in soil temperature was 9.2 °C under no mulched and 7.3 °C under mulched crop. Total water use efficiency found 0.69 kg /ha/mm higher under mulched plots. Rice straw mulch lowered down the maximum and minimum soil temperatures at 5 cm depth by 1.9 to 6.9 °C and by 0.4 to 1.6 °C, respectively. The soil temperature amplitude narrowed down by 0.9 to 7.1 °C. Seasonal fluctuation in soil temperature was 9.2 °C under no mulched and 7.3 °C under mulched crop. Total water use efficiency found 0.69 kg/ha/mm higher under mulched plots. Rice straw mulch lowered down the maximum and minimum soil temperatures at 5 cm depth by 1.9 to 6.9 °C and by 0.4 to 1.6 °C, respectively. The soil temperature amplitude narrowed down by 0.9 to 7.1
°C. Seasonal fluctuation in soil temperature was 9.2 °C under no mulched and 7.3 °C under mulched crop. Total water use efficiency found 0.69 kg/ha/mm higher under mulched plot in Bt cotton under sandy loam soil (Das et al., 2015). Nalayini et al. (2014) concluded that polyethylene mulching recorded the highest seed cotton yield of 5641 kg/ha and was at par with bio-degradable polyethylene mulching (5234 kg/ha) at the same moisture level and polyethylene mulching under conventional irrigation and biodegradable polyethylene mulching under conventional irrigation.
Table 11: Effect of mulching and nutrient management on yield and yield component in Bt cotton
Mulching Plant
height (cm)
Bolls/
plant
Seed cotton yield (kg/ha)
Stalk yield (q/ha) with cotton stalks @ 7.5 t/ha 127.93 35.78 2989 33.76 with cotton stalks @ 10 t/ha 128.63 36.82 3099 33.94
no mulching 124.54 34.17 2812 31.80
CD 5% 3.67 1.34 207 2.12
(Mallikarjun and Sudha, 2016)
At Dharwad, application of mulch with cotton stalks @ 10 t/ha on 30 DAS recorded significantly higher seed cotton yield (3099 kg/ha), stalk yield (37.77 q/ha) and uptake of all the nutrients over no mulch (2812 kg/ha, 31.80 q/ha respectively) in medium deep black soil (Table 11) (Mallikarjun and Sudha, 2016).
Sugarcane
Sugarcane produces nearly 10-12 tones dry leaves (trash) per hectare per year. The trash contains appreciable amount of NPK and other micro and secondary nutrients. Tamilselvan et al. (2001) observed that press mud mulching ultimately recorded the highest cane and sugar yield in sugarcane.
Juice extraction, brix and commercial cane sugar yield increased with trash mulching observed by Rana et al. (2002) and Mathew et al. (2003). Singh et al. (2003) found mulching with chopped trash along with addition of 25 kg N/ha after one interculture recorded the highest mean cane yield (72.4 t/ha) and the number of millable canes (81300/ha).
Table 12: Effect of trash mulch levels on growth and yield of autumn sugarcane Trash
Mulch
Tiller count (“000/ha)
NMC (“000/ha)
Plant height (cm)
Cane girth (cm)
Cane weight (kg)
Cane yield (t/ha)
Control 79.46 64.05 170.90 2.11 1.19 76.0
5 t/ha 83.22 66.41 174.37 2.18 1.22 80.8
10 t/ha 89.15 70.47 176.51 2.21 1.29 90.9
CD 5% 5.38 2.86 3.69 0.08 0.04 4.7
(Sanjeev Kumar et al., 2015).
In calcareous sandy loam soil of Bihar, trash mulching @ 10 t/ha recorded higher values of number of tillers (89150/ha), millable canes (70470 /ha), plant height (176.5 cm), cane girth (2.21 cm), cane weight (1.29 kg), cane yield (90.96 t/ha). sucrose (17.62%) and CCS (12.15%) per cent of cane juice and sugar yield (11.06 t/ha) and were found significantly superior to those obtained with no mulch (79460/ha, 64050/ha, 170.9 cm, 2.11 cm,
1.19 kg. 76 t/ha. 17.19%, 11.85%. 9.01 t/ha. respectively) and mulching @ 5 t/ha (83220 /ha. 66410 /ha. 174.4 cm, 2.18 cm, 1.22 kg, 80.8 t/ha. 17.32%, 11.96%, 9.68 t/ha) (Table 12) (Sanjeev Kumar et al., 2015).
Reduced fertilizer leaching
As excessive rainfall is shed from the root zone, fertilizer loss due to leaching is reduced. This is particularly true in sandy soils. This allows the grower to place more pre plant fertilizer in the row prior to planting the crop.
Patil and Singh (1983) observed that application of sunflower stover mulch
@ 20 t/ha in hot and dry season significantly increased the N, P and K uptake over no mulch.
Add organic matter
Organic mulches return organic matter and plant nutrients to the soil and improve the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil after decomposition, which in turn increases crop yield. Soil under the mulch remains loose and friable. Aeration and soil microbial activity are enhanced.
In heavy black soil also, application of mulches like coir pith @ 20 t/ha, press mud @ 10 t/ha decreased the bulk density over control (Mayalagu, 1983). The organic mulches not only conserve the soil moisture, they also increase the soil nutrients through organic matter addition (Dilip Kumar et al., 1990). Organic mulches have the advantage of being biodegradable, but decomposition may result in a temporary reduction in soil mineral nitrogen (Wallace and Bellinder, 1992). Gajri et al. (1994) reported that both soil strength and bulk density decreased by increasing mulch levels. Lal et al.
(1996) reported decrease in bulk density under straw mulch (1.42 g/cm) compared to bare soil (1.50 g/cm). Mulching increased soil moisture, organic matter contents leading to suitable environment for root penetration.
Ghuman et al. (2001) concluded that mulching decreases bulk density of the surface soil. The soil organic matter increased due decomposition of applied mulch. Applications of crop residue mulches increase soil organic carbon contents (Havlin et al., 1990, Paustin et al., 1997, Duiker and Lal, 1999, Saroa and Lal, 2003). Lal et al. (1980) and Khurshid et al. (2006) concluded that organic matter was significantly higher when more mulch was applied.
Stimulate soil micro-flora
Mulching stimulates soil micro-organisms such as algae, mosses, fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes and other organisms like earth worms etc., owing to loose, well aerated soil conditions, uniform moisture and temperatures thus resulting in a more rapid breakdown of organic matter in the soil and release of plant nutrients for crop growth. Under the mulch layer earth worms
proliferate and help to improve the soil aggregate stability and infiltration etc. Mulching conserves moisture, suppresses weed growth, protects the upper fertile soil from erosion, minimise variation in soil temperature and affords winter protection. In addition mulches are also reported to enhance soil microbial activity. The variation in the microbial load of the different organic mulches on bacterial population could be due to their different chemical composition and their decomposition rates.
Brown et al. (2001) mentioned that mulching practices gave positive effect on the soil biota. Soil biota increase under mulched soil environment thereby improving nutrient cycling and organic matter build up over a period of several years. Organic mulching technology support diversity of beneficial soil macroinvertebrates. Crop residue mulch supplied a lot of food for soil macroinvertebrates and nutrient to ensure the vegetation growth and created suitable environment for soil macroinvertebrates (Sugiyarto, 2009).
Sugiyarto (2009) showed that application of maize residue as mulch enhanced diversity index of surface and deep soil macroinvertebrate, i.e., 0.215 and 0.214 (by 44% and 73% respectively as compared to no mulching).
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