PROFIL TULISAN SISWA
MELALUI METODE AUDIO-LINGUAL (ALM):
STUDI KASUS DI SMA NEGERI 2 AMBON
NATALIA MANUHUTU P0600216402
ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM FACULTY OF CULTURAL SCIENCES
HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY MAKASSAR
2018
Thesis
as a partial fulfillment to achieve Master Degree
Program
English Language Studies
Arranged and Proposed by
NATALIA MANUHUTU
To
ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES PROGRAM POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM
FACULTY OF CULTURAL SCIENCES HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY
MAKASSAR 2018
ii
A CASE STUDY AT SMA NEGERI 2 AMBON
Written and Submitted by
NATALIA MANUHUTU Register Number: P0600216402
Has been defended in front of the thesis examination committee On August 9, 2018
Approved by:
Head of
The Supervisory Committee
Dra. Nasmilah. M.Hum.. Ph.D.
Member of
The Head of English Language Studies Program
The Dean of Faculty of Cultural Sciences
Dr. Harlinah Sahib. M.Hum.
Name : Natalia Manuhutu Register Number : P0600216402
Study Program : English Language Studies
States truthfully that this thesis was the result of my own work. If it is proven later that some parts or entire parts of this thesis are the work of others, I am willing to accept any sanctions for my dishonesty.
Makassar, 9th August 2018
Natalia Manuhutu
in
this research. The researcher truly faced many problems during the writing this thesis but Jesus Christ always helps her willingly.
Secondly, the writer wishes also to express her thanks to her supervisors, Dra. Nasmilah, M.Hum., Ph.D and Dr. Fathu Rahman, M.Hum as the supervisors as well as the advisors for their expertise, understanding, and patience and appreciates their vast knowledge, ideas, comments, suggestions and assistance from the preliminary stage of the manuscript to completing this thesis.
The writer also wishes to thank her examiners, Prof. Dr. M. L.
Manda, M.A., M.Phil, Drs. Abidin Pammu, M.A., Ph.D, and Dra. Herawaty, M.Hum., M.A., Ph.D for their valuable input, great proposition and favorable response on her thesis. Without their assistance and dedicated involvement in every step throughout the process, this thesis would have never been accomplished. In addition, she also would like to thank to all the honorable lecturers for their useful knowledge and enthusiasm in teaching, and all academic staff for their help and satisfying service.
The writer’s gratitude also goes to the headmaster of SMA Negeri 2 Ambon, Drs. P. Sapulette, M.Pd and the English teacher of the school, Cynthia O. A. Nanuru, S.Pd for allowing her to conduct the research and for the useful information for this research. Also, thanks to the students for their willingness to participate in her research and for their very good cooperation.
A very special thanks goes out to her lovely parents, Nelci Manuhutu-Paunno and Hermanus T. N. Manuhutu, as well as her beloved brother Aries Manuhutu for their prayers, support, and sincerity that the writer could complete her thesis. Also, a sincere thank also goes to her
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S.S., M.Hum as the observer who helped her in conducting her research.
Other sincere thanks goes to La Ode Achmad Suherman, S.Pd., M.Hum, Yetty, S.S., M.Hum, and M. Budiarman Sakka, S.Pd as the persons who helped her in analyzing her data.
Then, the writer thanks fellow students of English Language Studies Program 2016 of Education, Linguistics and Literature concentration, they are Kak Pri, Kak Rina, Edels, Kak Anita, Kak Rani, Kak Iis, Kak Ani, Kak Icha, Kak Muthe, Kak Uni, Kak Dewi, Kak Arin, Kak Agus, Kak Fahrul, Kak Tahir, Kak Haerul and Kak Akbar for all the experiences, happiness, and support they shared for the last two years.
Thank you for sharing her precious time in her life. Last but not least, the writer’s sincere thanks also goes to her seniors of English Language Studies Program 2015, Kak Nahliah, Kak Amel, Kak Fay, Kak Sofyan, Kak Nur, Kak Ajeng, Kak Reffyal, and others.
Makassar, 9th August 2018
Natalia Manuhutu
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The aims of this research were (1) to find out the profiles of students’ writing performance through Audio-Lingual Method and (2) to investigate the students’ attitudes towards the application of Audio-Lingual Method.
This research was carried out with the first grade students of SMA Negeri 2 Ambon. The research design was a qualitative descriptive interpretative paradigm. In collecting the data, tests were performed on students for three times using instructions of Audio-Lingual Method within three meetings. The observation was also performed to elicit data about the actual students’ performance in the classroom setting. The data of the first and second research instrument were analyzed descriptively.
The result showed a crucial element of teaching writing by starting at the lower level of instructional content, such as spelling, capitalization, spacing, and legible writing. The finding supports the previous study stating the importance of looking back at the Audio-Lingual Method as an effective traditional method. Observation result also showed that there was no negative attitude emerging among the students surveyed. The finding bears importance for both pedagogical and theoretical perspectives of teaching students with foreign language background.
Keywords: Audio-Lingual Method, profiles of students’ writing performance
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Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah (1) untuk mengidentifikasi (1) profit tulisan siswa melalui metode Audio-Lingual dan (2) untuk menginvestigasi sikap siswa terhadap penerapan metode Audio-Lingual.
Penelitian ini dilakukan dengan siswa kelas satu di SMA Negeri 2 Ambon. Desain penelitian adalah paradigma interpretatif deskriptif kualitatif. Dalam mengumpulkan data, tes dilakukan pada siswa selama tiga kali menggunakan instruksi Metode Audio-Lingual dalam tiga pertemuan. Observasi juga dilakukan untuk memperoleh data tentang penampilan siswa yang sebenamya di ruang kelas. Data instrumen penelitian pertama dan kedua dianalisis secara deskriptif.
Hasilnya menunjukkan elemen penting dari mengajar menulis dengan memulai pada tingkat yang lebih rendah dari konten pembelajaran, seperti ejaan, kapitalisasi, jarak, dan tulisan yang dapat dibaca. Temuan ini mendukung penelitian sebelumnya yang menyatakan pentingnya melihat kembali metode Audio-Lingual sebagai metode tradisional yang efektif. Hasil observasi juga menunjukkan bahwa tidak ada sikap negatif yang diperlihatkan di kalangan siswa yang disurvei.
Temuan ini memiliki perspektif pedagogis dan teoritis yang penting dalam mengajar siswa dengan latar belakang bahasa asing.
Kata kunci: Metode Audio-Lingual, profit tulisan siswa
VII
T IT L E ... i
APPROVAL S H E E T ... ii
A STATEMENT OF THESIS AU TH E N TIC ITY ... iii
ACKNO W LEDG EM ENT... iv
A B S T R A C T ... vi
A B S T R A K ... vii
TABLE OF C O N T E N T S ... viii
LIST OF T A B L E S ... xi
LIST OF F IG U R E ... xii
LIST OF A P P E N D IC E S ... xiii
CHAPTER I : IN TR O D U C TIO N ... 1
A. B ackground... 1
B. Research Q ue stion s... 4
C. Objectives of the R e se a rch ... 5
D. Significance of the R esearch... 5
E. Scope of the R esearch... 6
CHAPTER II : LITERATURE R E V IE W ... 7
A. Previous Related S tu d ie s ... 7
viii
1.2 The Process of W ritin g ... 12
2. The Importance of Writing ... 13
3. Teaching Writing in English as a Foreign La nguage... 14
3.1 Teaching of W ritin g ... 14
3.2 Types of Classroom P erform ance... 16
4. Teaching Writing in Senior High S c h o o l... 18
5. Assessing W ritin g ... 24
6. Audio-Lingual Method (A L M )... 26
6.1 What is Audio-Lingual Method ... 26
6.2 The Principles of ALM ... 29
6.3 The Main Feature of ALM ... 30
6.4 Techniques of ALM ... 31
C. Conceptual Framework ... 34
CHAPTER III : RESEARCH M ETHO DO LO G Y... 36
A. Research D e s ig n ... 36
B. Research Instrum ents... 36
C. Technique of S a m p lin g... 37
D. Procedures of Collecting D a ta ... 37
E. Techniques of Analyzing D a ta ... 40
IX
CHAPTER V : CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 85 BIBLIO G RAPHY... 87 A P PE N D IC E S ... 92
x
2. Table 2. The Students’ Score of Word Performance and
their C lassification... 46 3. Table 3. The Students’ Score of Phrase Performance and
their C lassification... 52 4. Table 4. The Students’ Score of Sentence Performance and
their C lassification... 65 5. Table 5. The Students’ Attitudes towards the Application
of Audio-Lingual M e th o d ... 73
XI
Xii
2. Appendix 2. The Transcript of English Audio (Meeting T w o )... 94
3. Appendix 3. The Transcript of English Audio (Meeting Three) ... 95
4. Appendix 4. Students’ Writing Sheet (Meeting O n e )... 96
5. Appendix 5. Students’ Writing Sheet (Meeting T w o )... 98
6. Appendix 6. Students’ Writing Sheet (Meeting T h re e )... 99
7. Appendix 7. Student Observation Sheet (Meeting O n e )... 101
8. Appendix 8. Student Observation Sheet (Meeting T w o )... 104
9. Appendix 9. Student Observation Sheet (Meeting T h re e )... 107
10. Appendix 10. Samples of Students’ Word Perform ance... 109
11. Appendix 11. Samples of Students’ Phrase Perform ance... 119
12. Appendix 12. Samples of Students’ Sentence Perform ance... 124
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This chapter explains what the researcher done in this research. In the background. It also covers research questions, objectives of the research, significance of the research, and scope of the research.
A. Background
Writing is one of the language skills, which is difficult to be mastered. Westwood (2008) stated that the reason why writing is difficult to be mastered because the composing writing involves complex thinking that must integrate some components, including the topic or theme, choice of words, organization, purpose, audience, clarity, sequence, cohesion and coherence. Therefore, not only is good writing a hard work, but it also is an extremely complex and challenging mental task (Westwood, 2008).
The difficulties in writing are also faced by students in Indonesia. In Indonesia, English is positioned as a foreign language. As stated by Rahman (2018) that the status of a foreign language means that it is not used as a means of communication in a particular country, but it is taught.
Therefore, English has been taught from elementary school up to university level. It means that English has an important role so that it is taught in Indonesian school. Even though, English has been taught from elementary school, it can be seen that there are many students are not
able to communicate well orally or written and they have a low score of English subject.
Writing plays an important role in our lives. Lamb (2000), also, reveals that writing is the expression of language in the form of letter, symbol, or words. The primary purpose of writing is communication. This goes in line with Tabor’s perspective (2004) in which writing is one of the main means to assess students’ knowledge, skills, and understanding. In the wider society, writing is often used as a metaphor for the process of education, or even being educated. Therefore, many teachers push their students with a lot of assignments in writing to make them feel familiar with writing and improve their writing skills.
In Senior High School 2 Ambon, the first year students usually find some difficulties when they are learning English writing. The interview data gathered from the students and the English teacher specified that the students’ ability in English writing is low. In this school, especially in the first grade where the school should be taught English that includes four skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing). However, the reality is that many of the students are familiar with English from listening, speaking, and reading texts, but only few of them can write in English properly. This is also supported by the statement of one of the English teachers at the school that for first grade students writing skills have not been the focus taught because focus skill of this school is speaking. Other information obtained by the researcher that in this school, subjects of interest is
applied in which English is included in the category and can be followed by students on every Saturday. Apparently in these activities, teachers put more emphasis on the skills of speaking and reading in order to prepare the students to attend various competitions such as speech, debate, storytelling, and poetry reading. However, based on the results of interviews to students it is known that there are some students who actually prefer to convey their ideas in written form rather than verbally.
Nagin (2006) contends that effective writing skills are important in all stages of life from early education to future employment. Most of the information is presented in written language such as manual books, newspapers, magazines, internet, etc. In line with this idea, the effort for improving the literacy skills in order to challenge the dynamic development of the era of globalization has triggered by the government of Indonesia (Pammu, et. al 2012). Thus, it is better if students start to be introduced early on to how to convey their ideas in writing properly.
Based on the above description, it can be concluded that the skills and attractiveness of students in this first grade in learning English tend to be lower on the aspect of writing compared to other aspects of language such as listening, speaking, and reading. In addition, another factor is that students have assumed that writing in English is very difficult.
To find solution for the problems that have been explained, the English teacher as a practitioner should be more creative by providing interesting and appropriate material or topics based on the students’ need
to achieve learning goals by creating techniques that can make the class more interesting, exciting, and enjoyable and it is the teacher’s responsibility to find the best method to teach the students especially in writing.
This research is intended to help students learn how to write in English using audio-lingual method (ALM). This research applied audio
lingual method to teach students in SMA Negeri 2 Ambon to write from level of word, phrase, and sentence. This method is chosen because although this method has been considered successful in helping students learn to listen and speak a foreign language, it is essential to conduct research on how to use this method to learn how to write because this research has not yet been done at this school or in any other schools. In addition, this study aimed to fill the research vacuum on the application of audio-lingual method in learning English, especially learning to write and see its application in writing skills, especially in practicing this method.
Based on the aforementioned issues above, the researcher was highly fascinated in conducting a research under the title of “The Profiles of Students’ Writing Performance through Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)”.
B. Research Questions
The researcher formulated the research questions as follows:
1. What are the profiles of students’ writing performance reflected through audio-lingual method?
2. What are the students’ attitudes towards the application of audio-lingual method?
C. Objectives of the Research The objectives of the research are as follows:
1. To identify the profiles of students’ writing performance through audio
lingual method.
2. To investigate the students’ attitudes towardsS the application of audio-lingual method.
The first objective of this research achieved by using students' written test results on the order of words, phrases, and sentences.
Furthermore, the second objective of this research achieved by using observation to investigate the students’ attitudes towards the application of audio-lingual method.
D. Significance of the Research
This research bears important both pedagogical and theoretical significance. From the pedagogical perspectives, the present study will raise the awareness of teachers in using the audio-lingual method for teaching writing as a productive skills at senior high school level, particularly in Ambon. From the theoretical perspectives, the present study
strengthens the validity of theory stating that conventional method is still relevant to promote language learning, especially for the context of EFL learners in Indonesia.
E. Scope of the Research
This research identified the profiles of students' writing performance on the first grade of SMA Negeri 2 Ambon through teaching instruction of audio-lingual method. Due to the fact that the first grade students are divided into two departments, such as natural and social-science class, then the researcher limits on students’ natural-science class only. In addition, the scope of methods involved in the research covers the perception of conventional including the drills and repetition system.
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Previous Related Studies
There have been a few research studies showing that audio-lingual method can be implemented in language teaching. The following are two research studies concerning the implementation of this method in language teaching which deserve attention. There has actually been a lot of research already documented in relation to the teaching utilizing audio
lingual method. The implementation of such traditional method is apparent throughout most EFL context of language teaching.
The first important research dealing with ALM was by Anwar (2011).
His research centered on the implementation of audio-lingual method aiming to improve the listening and speaking skills of the elementary students. His research was to describe the strategy of English language teaching using audiovisual method, and to show the comparison of mark achievement between the experiment group and control group. The data collecting method of this research was the observation method and testing method with the data collecting technique was observation technique and recording technique. This research used the experimental method as the data analysis method by forming two groups, those were the experiment group which gain treatment and control group as the comparison group.
The location of this research was in Santo Yakobus Catholic Elementary
School Makassar. The result of this research showed the audio-lingual method (ALM) can increase the student’s mark by flashcard as the teaching media. Based on his research, it can be said that form of learning by using this method is learning which can help improve students' speaking and listening skills. Enhancement which occurred in the experimental group compared with the control group showed significant amount of value. In the experimental group there were about 10% of the students who experiencing slow battles due to the external factors of the students concerned. This method is very good for the development of children's English in particular to improve listening and speaking skills.
Students who are used to saying words in English and listening to the word can generally repeat it with an almost perfect assessment level. This shows that audio-lingual method gives better influence than another method used by the subject teacher.
The second important research on this issue was by Ummah (2016) who conducted research about implementation of audio-lingual method in teaching speaking at SMP Islam An-Nidhomiyah Pamekasan. The purpose of this reasearch was to describe the steps in the iimplementation of audio-lingual method in teaching Speaking. The research was especially directed to venture into the students awareness on how to improve the speaking proficiency. In other words, the research was aimed at raising the awareness to improve the speaking through productive activities by using this method. It is a qualitative descriptive research.
While the techniques of collecting data used observation, interview, and documentation. The research result is concluded that there are three steps in teaching and learning Speaking English. They are (pre-teaching), (whilstteaching), and (post-teaching). The teacher used six techniques of audio-lingual method in teaching Speaking English namely dialog memorization, backward build up (expansion) drill, and repetition drill at the first observation. For second observation, teacher used the technique of chain drill, question and answer drill, and complete the dialog. Besides, teacher’s obstacles in teaching Speaking English are time allotment, teacher’s feeling (boring and tiring), and teaching media minimally. But, the teacher could solve the problems by giving homework sometimes, having enjoy in present the material, and collaborating the instructional material with simple media at the school.
Based on the two aforementioned studies, the researcher has the strong perception and belief to conduct research by utilizing this method to fill the research gaps. The application of audio-lingual method in learning English, will bring about productive and dynamic development of ELT in Eastern part of Indonesia.
B. Theoretical Review
The theoretical review presents theories related to the research. It is presented in three subheadings. The first part discusses about the
nature of writing. The second part presents the teaching of writing. The third part is about audio-lingual method (ALM).
1. The Nature of Writing
This sub-chapter of writing covers three main topics; they are the definition of writing, the principle of language productions, and the process of writing.
1.1. The Definition of Writing
Generally, language is divided into two major skills, receptive skills and productive skills. Receptive skills are skills needed to perceive and understand the language. Receptive skills consist of reading and listening.
Meanwhile, writing and speaking belong to the productive skill of the language. Productive skills are skills which enable students to produce language by themselves (Harmer, 2007). On the other hand, productive skills are required for learners to be able to build communication through the language.
Writing is a productive skill of the English language which needs to be mastered by the English language learners because writing is a means of communication and is considered as the indicator of communication competence of the target language. A good writing skill represents learners’ ability in communicating through English. Written language is used to communicate with others who are removed in time and space (Nunan, 1999).
Futhermore, writing is the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet, punctuation and spaces) to communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form (https://www.englishclub.com). Writing is multifaceted, it is only logical that it evokes different concepts. One of the language practicioners oriented the defenition of writing is a combination of process and product (Sokolik, 2003). The process refers to the act of gathering ideas and working with them until they are presented in a menner that is comprehensible to readers. Of course, process is recognized as the most complex step in writing since it deals with two important things i.e. what to write (ideas) and how to wtite (knowledge of language). Therefore product of writing such as articles, books are mainly composed by the combination of the two types of knowledge which are identified in contents (ideas), organizations (text structure), styles (vocabulary and expressions) ans mechanics (spelling, punctuation and grammar).
Other than that, writing can be defined a learning process which involves critical thinking to convey one’s ideas and thoughts. It is also an action or a process of discovering and organizing ideas into a paper as well as reshaping and revising. It is something which can be learnt through. Oates (2000) claims that writing is a unique way of learning since writing is integrative, requiring the active participation of both the right and left hemispheres of brain, resulting in the production of meaning.
Therefore, it can be concluded that writing is a productive of a language which requires critical thinking process and is used as a means
of communication to aspire someone’s thoughts. Students of EFL can learn about writing in order to be able to be a good writer as well as convey and express their ideas as it is a learning process.
1.2. The Process of Writing
Seow (2002) argues that writing process provides the learners with sequences of planned learning experiences to help them understand the nature of writing. In order to make a good writing quality, there are several steps which need to concern about. If we use the above principles to teach writing for teenager learners, then their writing skills should be developed by using the following steps below. These steps of writing are related one to another, forming a cycle of writing in which one stage will influence the next step.
The further explanation of writing process chart proposed by Seow (2002) described as follows:
a. Prewrite
In this important first step, the learners are given an opportunity to prepare to write and to collect their thoughts and ideas. If done properly, it can ease the learners into writing without any hasitation or worry.
b. Write
The learners write down all of their ideas. They do not worry about form or correctness or even the order. The objective is to get the
ideas on paper as quickly as possible.
c. Revise
The initial piece of writing is examined and reworked so that the ideas are logical and flow together.
d. Edit
Learners (with help of their teachers or classmates) proof-read their work to make sure that there are not any content errors of gramatical or spelling errors.
e. Publish
The writing piece is rewritten in a published or presentable form, in a student-made book, on special paper, and/or on a computer so that it can be displayed or shared.
2. The Importance of Writing
Writing has become inseparable thing in today’s world. It has been with us for several years, and now becomes more important. Many people rely on writing in everyday’slife. In fact, today, more communication takes place in written mode that in the oral mode. One of real example is internet. Coulmas (2002) said that internet explosion has laid to rest the idea that for the human race at large writing is only "minor” form of communication. Internet as one of communication instrument proves that writing has essential function in everyday’s life. She also added that although hundreds of million of people are still unable to read and write, human relies on writing to unprecedented extent.
Meanwhile, in educational fields i.e. at schools, writing is very important since most examination requie students o use their wrting skill. If they have good writing skill, they can be success, even though it is not the only aspect that determined students’ success. Writing also can make students develop their critical thinking. When they write, they automatically think. That way, they can explore their ideas and put them into a good writing.
From the explanation above, it is clear that writing skill is very important in our life. Writing can be very much helpful, if we want to be successful. Therefore, it is important for teacher to pay attention to writing, especially in teaching English as a foreign language.
3. Teaching Writing in English as a Foreign Language 3.1. Teaching of Writing
When teaching writing to learners, there are two things to consider i.e. language knowledge and cognitive skills. Language knowledge refers to things the students know regarding linguistic components of a language in order to write e.g. vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, spelling, etc. On the other hand, cognitive skills refer to skills necessary to formulate ideas and write them onto papers. These two factors are found very challenging to learners depending on their language development. For example; the learners who find it very frustrating to write letters, will generally find it difficult to put their thoughts in writing. Therefore, there are at least two major tasks that a teacher needs to do to cope with such a situation i.e.
teaching the students linguistic components and teaching them on how to capture their ideas to put on paper. However, there is one thing for sure regarding writing for learners that they commonly enjoy experimenting with writing and putting their ideas down on appears (Linse and Nunan, 2005).
It is very prominent for students to be taught about writing skill.
Teaching writing to students is significant because it can reinforce students’ language acquisition, support students’ language and learning development, and help students to master the basic skills of language (Harmer,1998).
According to Nunan (1999), there are two basic approaches underlying the teaching of writing. They are product-oriented approach and process-oriented approach. The very first approach, that is product- oriented approaches, concerns on the result or the final product of students’ writing, the coherent, and the error-free text. Meanwhile, the process-oriented approach focuses on the steps involved in drafting and redrafting a piece of work.
The teaching of writing for many years concerns more on the writing product than the writing process, in which this is called as product approach (Harmer, 2007), a half century ago, the teaching of writing is emphasized more on the final product, such as the essay, the report, the story, and what that product should be like. However the teacher needs to pay attention more on the writing process as students will not only concern about what text they can produce but also how to construct a writing text.
Students will have to focus on both the process of making text and the final product of their writing.
Regarding with this issue, Harmer (2007) proposes some strategies which can be considered by teachers in dealing with the teaching of writing:
a. The way the teacher gets students to plan
Before starting to write, the teacher may support students to think about what they want to write. The teacher can help students in building their knowledge before they start writing.
b. The way the teacher encourages students to draft, reflect, and revise
The teacher can involve students to collaborative writing activity as it allows students to draft, reflect, and revise. This way enables students to respond to other students’ writing.
c. The way the teacher responds to students’ writing
At this point, the teacher can help students by giving suggestion to make some betterment in students’ writing. Other than the teacher’s feedback, peer response is one alternative to give some suggestions to students’ writing.
3.2. Types of Classroom Writing Performance
According to Brown (2001), there are five types of writing performance:
a. Imitative, or writing down
At this stage of writing, students only need to write down English letters, words, and sentences to learn the conventions of the orthographic code. At some points, the teacher may do some dictations to students as well.
In this current research, an imitative writing is applied for the first grade of senior high school. It is one of the ways that allows a teacher to see how well his or her students are able to write simple sentences. It is practical in that it is easy to grade, as well as reliable because the same answer will be reached by everyone, and authentic since students will have to write legibly so people can understand. Since imitative writing is all about the correct way to form words and letters, this is a great example of how well a student can write. Most of the letters of the common letters in the alphabet are present so the students will receive a lot of practice with those.
It is also about the same topic all the way through so it will be easy for the students to understand and not become confused with a switch to the topic they are writing about. Overall, this is a great way to see how well someone writes and will be able to tell the teacher how much work his or her students have done in writing.
b. Intensive, or controlled
Intensive writing commonly appears in controlled-written grammar exercises and does not offer much creativity on the
writer’s side. Intensive writing usually presents students with a paragraph in which they need to correct a given structure. Other than that, intensive writing often appears in the form of dicto-comp in which students need to rewrite the paragraph. Controlled writing may loosen the teacher’s controlsbut can function as stimulators.
c. Self-writing
Self-writing is writing with only the self in mind as the audience. There are several forms of writing which fall into this writing category, such as note-taking and journal writing.
d. Display writing
Display writing is highly related to academic world. It is a requirement in which the students need to master in the school context as at school they need to be able to take short answer exercises, essay examinations, as well as the research methods.
Those short of things can be categorized into display writing.
e. Real-writing
Real-writing aims at transferring and communicating information and messages to the audience who needs the messages.
4. Teaching Writing in Senior High School
When it comes to the discussion of teaching in senior high school, there are several things which need to take into accounts. The first one is
the regulation of ministry of education in the form of content standard and the other one is the age range of junior high school students.
Writing is one of the indicators of measuring students’
communication competence in learning English. According to National Agency for Profession Certification (BNSP, 2006), one of the scopes of English language teaching and learning is students’ communicative competence, including students’ ability to understanding and producing text, either written or spoken, that is carried out through four language skills, they are: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
BNSP also urges students to be taught literacy which covers the following levels:
a. Performative
At this level, students are hoped to master the skills of English, which are listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
b. Functional
At the functional level, students are supposed to be able to make use the language as a tool to fulfil their needs in daily life, as an example to read news or manual.
c. Informational
At the informational level, students should be able to access knowledge by making use their knowledge in English. Students are expected to reach informational level since they need to be
prepared for their further educational level, whether it is in university or college.
Related to this, the curriculum in SMA Negeri 2 Ambon is develop based on the Curriculum 2013. The standard of competence and the basic competence in this school are also derived from the Standard of Content released by the Department of Culture and Education. The standard of competence and the basic competence are the basic to develop the indicators of assessment, the materials, and the teaching and learning activities.
Another point which needs to be highlighted in teaching writing in senior high school is the students’ age range. The students of senior high school’s age range falls between fourteen to seventeen years old, in which that age range is commonly called as older or late young learners (Ersoz, 2007). In classroom, writing activities can be done in-group or individually.
According to leamer's level teachers can design the writing task.
McDonough and Shaw (2003) have stated a process of writing according to which teachers should guide the leamers- "gathering ideas, working on drafts and preparing final version" that will establish a collaborative and interactive framework. To make the process fruitful teacher should make the learners motivated.
Therefore, there are some considerations which the teacher should take when they teach the students. For learning or teaching foreign language to the learners, motivation is an important factor to achieve
success. Various studies have shown that motivation is strongly related to achievement in language learning. Naiman (1978) (cited: Ur, 2005), author of a classic study of successful language learning, defined certain typical characteristics of motivated foreign language learners irrespective of their age. Some of this are:
a. Positive task orientation
Learner is willing to tackle tasks and challenges, and has confidence in his or her success.
b. Ego involvement
The learner finds it important to succeed in learning in order to maintain and promote his or her own self-image.
c. Need for achievement
The learner has a need to achieve, to overcome difficulties and succeed in what he or she sets out to do.
d. High aspiration
The learner is ambitious, goes for demanding challenges, high proficiency, and top grades.
Besides motivation, the learners have other learning strategies that teachers have to consider while teaching. Teachers' duty is to identify specific learning strategies what a group of learners or individual learners already have and at the same time help them to adopt different strategies.
According to Cook (1996), there are some good learning strategies:
Find a learning style that suits you
• Involve yourself in the language learning process
• Develop an awareness of language both as system and as communication
• Pay constant attention to expanding your language knowledge.
Ur (2005) suggests "for schoolchildren learning a foreign language will be well only if the teacher find a way to activate and encourage their desire to invest effort in the learning activity". For young learners extrinsic or instrumental motivation works well where teachers playa vital role and they need to focus on the nature of moti vation students have. Ur (2005) has found some sources of extrinsic motivation that works for young learners while learning foreign language. Some are discussed below:
a. Success and its rewards
This is the single most important feature m ralsmg extrinsic motivation. Learners who have succeeded m past tasks will be more willing to engage with the next one.
b. Tests
The motivating power of tests appears clear, learners who know they are going to be tested on specific material next week will normally be more motivated to study it carefully.
c. Competition
Learners will often be motivated to give their best not for the sake of learning itself but in order to bear their opponents in a competition.
Furthermore, teachers can give a choice to the students so that they can choose their own topic. Before setting the task for elementary level students, according to Harmer (1998), "teacher should make it sure that students have enough language competency to complete the task". At the same time teachers should be alert while checking the task. If teachers do excessive correction in young learners level it may have a negative impact. Harmer (1998) also points out, "over correction could have a demotivating effect on the students" and suggests, "Teachers can tell the students that for a particular piece of writing they will correct mistakes of particular aspects of language like- grammar, punctuation, spelling or organization." From teaching writing to correcting it, the whole process is amalgamated which gradually develop the writing skill of second language learners.
Further, writing helps engaging students to language acquisition as it aids students language and learning development as well as facilitating students in mastering the basic skills of language (Harmer, 1998). In other words, a good writing skill helps students to master the target language as well as the other skills of the language. It is for this reason that teaching writing is very prominent and plays an important role toward students’
language acquisition.
To sum up, in teaching and learning process of English in senior high school, writing is compulsory subject to be taught. In addition, writing needs to be taught since it helps students acquiring the language and so
does the other language skills. Therefore, teaching writing undoubtedly plays an undeniable role toward students’ success in learning English.
5. Assessing Writing
In the teaching and learning process of writing, assessment needs to be done to measure students’ writing abilities. Moreover, the success and the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process of writing can also be measured through an assessment activity.
Hyland (2003) states that assessment refers to the ways of collecting information on learners’ language ability or achievement.
Additionally, it is said that there are five main reasons to evaluate learners:
a. Placement
This kind of evaluation is generated to provide information that helps to place the students into appropriate classes based on their level and ability.
b. Diagnostic
Diagnostic evaluation is used to identify the students’ strengths and specific weaknesses on writing. This assessment is usually to be used as a part of needs assessment.
c. Achievement
Evaluation on achievement is done to measure the progress that the students have made on their writing.
d. Performance
Performance evaluation is used as a source to give information about the students’ ability in performing particular writing tasks.
e. Proficiency
Profieciency test measures students’ general level of competence in relation to a certain task which they are required to perform.
There are two types of scoring approaches which are usually used to assess students’ writing ability, holistic scoring and analytic scoring.
According to Hughes (2003), holistic scoring is a type of scoring which involves the assignment of a single score to a piece of writing, on the basis of an overall impression on it. The advantage of using this kind of scoring in writing is that the scoring process can be done quickly.
On the other hand, analytical scoring requires separated score for each of a number of aspects of a task, Hughes (2003). In analytic scoring, students’ writing is assessed based on detail grades for aspects of writing, such as vocabulary, grammar, organization, etc. This approach of scoring has several advantages. First, it disposes of problem of uneven development of sub skills in students. Second, it considers the aspects of performance and third, because the scorer has to give an exact number of score, this scoring approach tends to be more reliable. However, this kind of scoring takes a lot of time.
Based on the reviews between the holistic and the analytic approaches of scoring, the researcher implemented analytic approach. In
this research, the students’ worksheets was identified and analyzed by means of a qualitative paradigm.
6. Audio-Lingual Method
6.1 W hat is Audio-Lingual Method
Larsen-Freeman (2000), the audio-lingual method, Army Method, or New Key, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which postulates that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement. The correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.
This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method. Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students should be taught a language directly, without using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method did not focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar.
Applied to language instruction, and often within the context of the language lab, it means that the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction: everything is simply memorized in form.
The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. The lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing the desired response will result in a student receiving negative feedback. This type of activity, for the foundation of language learning, is in direct opposition with communicative language teaching.
Charles C. Fries, the director of the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, the first of its kind in the United States, believed that learning structure, or grammar was the starting point for the student. In other words, it was the students' job to recite the basic sentence patterns and grammatical structures. Fries later included principles for behavioural psychology, as developed by B.F. Skinner, into this method.
Based on Skinner’s behaviorism theory, it assumed that a human being can be trained using a system of reinforcement. Correct behaviour receives positive feedback, while errors receive negative feedback. This approach to learning is similar to the direct method, in that the lesson takes place entirely in the target language.
The audio-lingual method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue.
These patterns are elicited, repeated and tested until the responses given
by the student in the foreign language are automatic. Some characteristics of this method are:
• Drills are used to teach structural patterns
• Set phrases are memorised with a focus on intonation
• Grammatical explanations are kept to a minimum
• Vocabulary is taught in context
• Focus is on pronunciation
• Correct responses are positively reinforced immediately
The audio-lingual method is still in use today, though normally as a part of individual lessons rather than as the foundation of the course.
These types of lessons can be popular as they are relatively simple, from the teacher’s point of view, and the learner always knows what to expect.
Some of the most famous supporters of this method were Giorgio Shenker, who promoted guided self learning with the Shenker method in Italy, and Robin Callan, who created the Callan method.
This extensive memorization, repetition and over-learning of patterns was the key to the method’s success, as students could often see immediate results. Thus, once again based the explanations before, this research aimed to fill the research vacuum on the application of audio
lingual method in learning English, especially learning to write and see its application in writing skills, especially in practicing this method.
6.2. The Principles of Audio-Lingual Method
Some of the main principles of language learning in the audio
lingual method according to Larsen-Freeman (2000). One of these principles is that the second language learning process should be similar to that of first language acquisition.
This complies with the natural order of language learning which is listening, speaking, reading and finally, writing. It is believed that the learner first learns to speak what he has listened to, then read what he has spoken, and write what he has read. Therefore, audio-lingual method emphasizes on listening and speaking skills in order to facilitate the progress of reading and writing skills besides increasing communicative competency.
Another principle is that the second language is best acquired by habit formation. A habit is created when an action is repeated and is subsequently produced in response to certain stimuli almost without conscious activity. This is achieved via the repetitive pattern practices that are part and parcel of audio-lingual method.
Translation of the target language into the native language is considered harmful and will hinder acquisition of the second language.
Such translations are believed to impede the mastery or control of the second language. When the target language is used in all circumstances in the classroom, learners learn to make direct connections between the
vocabulary and its semantics in the target language itself, which is ideal for effective second language learning.
However, these principles are merely assumptions. Counter
arguments include: second language learning is completely different from native language acquisition in many different aspects. In addition, the natural order of language learning that audio-lingual method stresses on is irrelevant because the four language skills can be developed simultaneously rather than sequentially. The learning of a second language is not necessarily a process of habit formation where responses are elicited by stimuli, but also involves the cognitive. Finally, translation into the native language has proven a useful technique indeed in learning a second language, demonstrated in methods such as the Grammar Translation Method.
6.3. The Main Feature of Audio-Lingual Method
As aforementioned, audio-lingual method follows the natural order of language learning. The use of repetitive drills is justified in shaping a new "habit” for learning the second language. Stimuli-responses are expected and correct ones are immediately reinforced as conditioning, concurrent with the views of behavioural psychology.
The native language also plays a minimal role in the audio-lingual method. Only the target language is used within the classroom by both teacher and learners. New material in the target language is also
introduced in dialogue form, closest to a natural situational context for learners to gain communicative competence and skills.
Modeling is done by the teacher whereby a particular structure of sentence is spoken and learners repeat the sentence, mimicking its sound patterns and intonation, and aiming for identicalness. Slips in learners’
pronunciation of words in the sentence are immediately corrected by the teacher to avoid formation of "bad habits”.
Grammar rules are not taught explicitly but are expected to be induced by the learners through the various examples and patterns that are exposed to them during the lesson. Contrastive analyses are also done between the native language and the target language in order to draw learner’s attention to differences in pattern, structure and sound system of both languages.
6.4. Techniques of Audio-Lingual Method
According to Larsen-Freeman (2000), there are many techniques employed in the classroom that advocate the underlying principles (or assumptions) of the audio-lingual method, and are also based on the aforementioned two main schools of thought for the said method.
One of the main techniques used is of introducing new learning material in the form of a dialogue. A model conversation is analyzed, broken down and memorized through mimicry. Dialogues are seen as a natural conversational context that will aid learners in applying learned structures and vocabulary.
Many drills are used in this method. The backward build-up drill (expansion drill) breaks down a difficult sentence into smaller parts.
Usually the last phrase of the sentence is repeated by the learners and then parts are added on, or expanded, until learners are able to repeat the complete sentence without further trouble.
Single-slot substitution drills require the learners to substitute in cues given by the teacher into a particular slot in the sentence. Multiple- slot substitution drills on the other hand, require a higher level of competence from the learners. Learners must recognize particular slots within the sentence to substitute the cues given by the teacher, occasionally having to alter subject-verb agreements as well.
Other drills include the repetition drill, chain drill, transformation drill and question-and-answer drill. According to Larsen-Freeman (2000), here are examples of the different drills used in the audio-lingual method:
• R epetition d rill
Students are asked to repeat the teachers’ model as accurately and as quickly as possible. This drill is often used to teach the lines of the dialog.
• Chain d rill
The chain drill uses maybe the first few lines of a simple dialogue.
The teacher begins by addressing a student, or asking him a question.
The student responds, then turns to the student beside him and asks him a similar question. The second student responds and the chain goes on
until each student has participated. This allows for the teacher to check learner’s speech.
• T ra n sfo rm a tio n d rill
The teacher may give learners a question, and the learners are then required to formulate an answer from the form of the question given, and vice versa. Or, an affirmative sentence is given and learners need to transform it into the negative. This can be used for teaching active and passive sentences, as well as direct and reported speech.
• Q u e stion -an d-an sw er d rill
This drill allows for learners to practice answering questions accurately and rapidly. It can also be done the other way round, where the learners form the questions on cue.
• M u ltip le -s lo t s u b s titu tio n d rill
The teacher gives students a certain kind of sentence pattern, an affirmation sentence for example. Students are asked to transform this sentence into a negative sentence. Other examples of transformations to ask of students are changing a statement into a question, an active sentence into a passive one, or direct speech into reported speech.
• Use o f m inim al pairs
The teacher works with pairs of words which differ in only one sound; for example, ‘ship/sheep’. Students are first asked to perceive the difference between the two words and later to be able to say the two words. The teacher selects the sounds to work on after she has done a
contrastive analysis, a comparison between the students’ native language and the language they are studying.
• C om plete the d ia lo g
Selected words are erased from the dialog students have learned.
Students complete the dialog by filling the blanks with the missing words.
C. C onceptual Fram ew ork
The conceptual framework is broad term representing the concept of the research and how the researcher will come up with the data analysis. As Camp (2001) states that conceptual framework is a structure of what has been learned to best explain the natural progression of a phenomenon that is being studied in a research. In other words, conceptual framework is the roadmap of the current research. Then, the conceptual framework is drawn in the figure as follows:
Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the research
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this chapter is to present, describe and elaborate the methodological approaches chosen for this research. The research methodology contains research design, research instrument, technique of sampling, procedures of collecting data, and techniques of analyzing data.
A. Research Design
This research aimed to identify the profiles of the students’ writing performance through teaching instruction of Audio-Lingual method. The design of this research was a qualitative model. According to Bryman (2008), the qualitative method is a research strategy which focused on the words than quantification in the collection and analysis of data. In addition, Sandelowski (2004) states that the qualitative method is a universal term of attitude and the strategies to conduct an inquiry which use to how human understood, have the experiences and products in the social world.
In this research, the data collection followed by an analysis of qualitative data.
B. Research Instruments
The focus of this research is the profiles of students’ writing through teaching instruction of Audio-Lingual method. To achieve the aims of the
research, a variety of research instruments used to suit the research questions. The qualitative research instrument were students’ worksheet, and observation. In the observation, the researcher used student observation to investigate the students’ attitude toward the application of audio-lingual method.
C. Technique of Sampling
The total number of population in the first grade students of SMA Negeri 2 Ambon is 408 students. In this case, the researcher chose the sample by using cluster random sampling. The sample of this research was 30 first grade students in X IPA 1 and they were Ambonese. The sample was taken by cluster random sampling technique. The students were a mixed-gender between the ages of 15 to 16 years old. In terms of language, for the participants, Malay Ambon is their first language while English is not their second language. The students were in the second semester of their studies.
D. Procedures of Collecting Data
In order to collect data from the first research instrument, this research carried out within three meetings and each meeting is delivered for 90 minutes. The procedures were described in the following passage:
1. Opening Activities
Before playing the audio of English to the students, the researcher devided the students into four groups. This activity was delivered for 5 minutes by giving motivation to the students (e.q. sing an English song).
2. Main Activities
The researcher delivered this activity for 80 minutes. The reseacher provided the same main activities for each meeting. For more clearly, the activities are as follows:
• The researcher played the audio to the students.
• After that, the researcher explained the topic or theme of the day.
• The researcher asked and discussed some difficulties words in the report of the audio with the students.
• The researcher distributed a worksheet to the students.
• Finally, before the researcher turned on the audio again to let the students’ comprehension, the researcher made sure all the learners were ready.
3. Closing Activities
• For closing activity, the researcher delivered it for 5 minutes where the students were given chance to tell their difficulties in this class.
• The researcher made conclusion to the learning material.
In order to collect data from the second research instrument, the researcher used the level of affective domain by Krathwohl (1964). It is presented in the table of students observation.
Table 1. Krathwohl’s Taxonomy of Affective Domain
No Level Aspect of Observation
1. Receiving
Students are able to listen to the researcher's explanation carefully
Students can answer the researcher’s questions correctly
2. Responding
Students ask questions to the researcher to things that have not
been understood
Students can express their opinions during the process of
learning in the classroom
Students can assess the opinions of other students during the learning process in the classroom
3. Valuing
Creative thinking (e.g, trying to solve the problems of exercises
that have different variations of the examples given)
Students communicate their own thoughts
Futhermore, since observing the students’ attitudes towards the application of Audio-Lingual Method, it is imperative to have an observer in observing the activities of students in order to justify its objectivity. In this
research, the researcher used an observer to observe and give descriptions on the students observation based on the table above.
E. Techniques of Analyzing Data
1. The method of analyzing the data from the students’ writing sheet were calculated as follows:
a. Scoring the students’ correct answer in each level using the following formula by Depdiknas (2005) :
A student’s score = The score gain in each component
--- X 100 Score of all component
b. Then, the researcher classified the students’ score into the following criteria:
• 76 - 100
• 51 - 75
• 26 - 50
• 0 - 25
classified as "Very Good”
classified as "Good”
classified as "Fair”
classified as "Poor”
Based on the data obtained from the students' writing sheet, the researcher identified the students' work results at the level of words, phrases, and sentences. In addition, the researcher also investigated directly by providing observation data that have been prepared previously
to checked and then observed events matched with observation data. The researcher used observation data to investigate students' attitudes toward the application of audio-lingual method in the classroom.
