Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue5.1998:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 5 [1998] 2 2 5 –2 3 1 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0951-354X]

Managing platform conversion in educational

institutions

Sorel Reisman

Califo rnia State Unive rs ity, Fulle rto n, Califo rnia, USA

Roger G. Dear

Califo rnia State Unive rs ity, Fulle rto n, Califo rnia, USA

This paper describes a re-engineering project under-taken by a comprehensive university’s extended educa-tion department. The project involved a transition from a decentralized workplace dominated by Macintosh personal computers to an IBM PC/clone-based client/server environment. Lessons learned during the decision making and platform conversion stages of the project are emphasized. These lessons are applicable to other similar re-engineer-ing projects.

Introduction

T h e p r ocess of r een gin eer in g h igh er ed u ca -t ion is b a sed on n ew a ssu m p -t ion s con cer n in g ser v ice a n d q u a lit y a n d involves r ed esign in g wor k p r ocesses t o t a k e a dva n t a ge of em er gin g t ech n ologica l ca p a b ilit ies (Pen r od a n d Dolen ce, 1992). Th e m ot iva t ion for r e-en gi-n eer igi-n g is a d esir e t o com p et e igi-n t h e gi-n ew wor ld of low cost s, glob a l r ea ch , fa st cycle t im es a n d cu st om er sa t isfa ct ion (Kin g, 1997). At it s fou n d a t ion , t h e p r ocess of r een gin eer -in g d e p en d s on t h e d evelop m en t of a v ia ble in for m a t ion t ech n ology (IT) in fr a st r u ct u r e (Pen r od a n d Dolen ce, 1992). Th is p a p er d escr ib es a n IT con ver sion p r oject t h a t w a s u n d er t a k en a t a la r ge com p r eh en sive u n iver -sit y ’s ext en d ed ed u ca t ion d e p a r t m en t . Th e p r oject ’s ob ject ive w a s t o p r ov id e a d m in ist r a t ive com p u t er sy st em s t o su p p or t t h e d e p a r t -m en t ’s con t in u ed gr ow t h , t h er eby i-m p r ov in g cu st om er ser v ice for it s st u d en t s. T h e p r oject in volved a t r a n sit ion fr om a d ecen t r a lized wor k p la ce d om in a t ed by Ma cin t osh p er son a l com p u t er s t o a n IBM P C/ clon e-b a sed clien t / ser ver en v ir on m en t . Wh ile m ost con -ver sion p r oject s in volve t r a n sit ion s fr om a m or e t r a d it ion a l m a in fr a m e en v ir on m en t , t h e lesson s lea r n ed d u r in g t h e im p lem en t a t ion of t h is p r oject a p p ea r t o b e sca la ble a n d a p p lica -ble t o a w id e va r iet y of IT con ver sion effor t s.

To d a t e, n u m er ou s exa m p les of t r a n sit ion -in g t ech n ology -in h igh er ed u ca t ion h ave b een d ocu m en t ed in t h e lit er a t u r e (Allen a n d Wil-son , 1996; Ba r r y, 1994; Bor el a n d Vin cen t , 1995; E a t on a n d Sch u ler, 1994; Mu llig a n d F r ey, 1994). A com m on t h em e t h a t em er ges fr om t h ese exa m p les is t h a t k ey m a n a gem en t con cer n s n eed t o b e a d d r essed in t h e p r oject p la n -n i-n g p h a ses. For em ost a m o-n g t h ese is t h e r est r u ct u r in g of t h e in for m a t ion sy st em s (IS) or ga n iza t ion t o b e m or e u ser -fr ien d ly. T h is im p lies, a m on g ot h er t h in gs, r et r a in in g exist in g t ech n ica l st a ff, t r a in in g clien t s, a n d fi n d -in g n ew w ay s t o d o bu s-in ess w it h IS clien t s. A coor d in a t ed ca p it a l r e p la cem en t p la n for d esk t op h a r dw a r e is a lso r ecom m en d ed .

T h e p r im a r y IT r es t r u ct u r in g/ r een gin eer -in g focu s -in t h e 1990s h a s b een on t h e im p le-m en t a t ion of clien t / ser ver s t r a t e gies. T h e clien t / ser ver p a r a d igm h a s b ecom e t h e com -p u t in g a r ch it ect u r e of ch oice, a n d m u ch a t t en t ion h a s b een given t o clien t / s er ver a p p lica t ion d evelop m en t m et h od ologies

(F r ien d , 1994; H a ger, 1996; J effer y, 1996; Lev is a n d va n Sch illin g, 1994; Low a n d Looi, 1997; Miller, 1997; Ra b in , 1996; Sa elen s a n d N elson , 1994; Su b r a m a n ia n a n d La cit y, 1997). Wh ile t h e clien t / ser ver p a r a d igm is b ein g t ou t ed a s a r a d ica l ch a n ge in IT, m os t of t h es e a r t icles fi n d t h a t cla ssic p r oject m a n a gem en t t ech -n iq u es t h a t h ave b ee-n a p p lied i-n ot h er IT con t ext s a r e st ill va lid . T h ese in clu d e su ch st e p s a s ob t a in in g t op m a n a gem en t su p p or t , r ed esign in g bu sin ess p r ocesses b efor e a u t om a t ion , solicit in g u ser p a r t icip a t ion , a n d d evelop in g p h a sed im p lem en t a t ion s t r a t e-gies.

Clien t / ser ver a p p lica t ion s a r e n ot w it h ou t d ifficu lt ies. T h e n e ga t ive sid e of clien t / ser ver a n d t h e m a n a gem en t of r is k h ave b een a d d r essed by m a n y a u t h or s (see for exa m p le: Ch a r et t e, 1996; P ow ell a n d Klein , 1996; St e p h en s, 1996; Solom on , 1994). T h e con sen -su s a p p ea r s t o b e t h a t w h en effect ively a p p lied , r isk m a n a gem en t is a p ow er fu l t ool for m a k in g a n IT p r oject p r oa ct ive. H ow ever, p oor ly a p p lied , r isk m a n a gem en t ca n lea d a n IT p r oject in t o r u in . Solom on (1994) r ecom -m en d s ca u t ion . H e n ot es t h a t a lt h ou gh exp ec-t a ec-t ion s a r e gr ea ec-t a n d en ec-t h u s ia sm h igh , m osec-t of t h e a ct u a l clien t / ser ver a p p lica t ion s t h a t h e r ev iew ed w er e p er ip h er a l, n on -cor e a p p li-ca t ion s, a n d cer t a in ly n ot m ission -cr it ili-ca l. In a d d it ion t o t ech n ologica l iss u es, a n u m b er of a u t h or s h ave st r essed t h e h u m a n sid e, n a m ely t h e a dva n t a ges of p a r t icip a t or y p la n -n i-n g a -n d u ser t r a i-n i-n g (Am oa k o-Gya m p a h a n d Wh it e, 1997; Du ffin , 1996; Mu ller, 1997; Rou se, 1996). Va r ied a p p r oa ch es a r e p r op osed for effect ive p a r t icip a t ion . T h ey r ecom m en d t h e u se of p ilot sy st em s a n d n ot e t h e im p or t a n ce of t r a in in g t o a ssis t in t h e sm oot h t r a n -sit ion t o a dva n ced t ech n ologies.

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So re l Re is man and Ro ge r G, De ar Managing platfo rm c o nve rsio n in e duc atio nal institutio ns

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 5 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 2 5 –2 3 1

IT re-engineering lessons learned 1 St u dy m a r k et t r en d s ca r efu lly a n d a ss es s

lon gev it y p ot en t ia l d is p a ss ion a t ely. 2 Us e in t er im s olu t ion s t o a ss ist t h e t r a n s

i-t ion in g p r ocess.

3 P er s on n el a r e m or e lik ely t o coop er a t e a n d a s sist ot h er s w h en t h ey a r e con v in ced t h a t t ech n ology ch a n ges w ill b e b en efi cia l t o t h eir ow n job s.

4 Id en t ify u ser s w h o ca n ea s ily a d a p t t o ch a n ge a n d u se t h em a s a gen t s of ch a n ge. 5 Do n ot for ce ch a n ge t o t a k e p la ce a t a n

u n r ea list ic p a ce.

6 Be p r e p a r ed t o d ea l w it h t ech n op h ob ic wor k er s.

7 Ut ilize “exces sed ” h a r dw a r e if p os s ible. 8 P u r ch a s e t h e m os t p ow er fu l h a r dw a r e

ava ila ble.

Background/ environment

CSUF is on e of 22 u n iver s it ies in t h e Ca lifor -n ia St a t e U-n iver s it y Sy s t em . Loca t ed a p p r oxi-m a t ely 30 oxi-m iles s ou t h ea st of Los An geles (a n d a b ou t eigh t m iles n or t h of Dis n ey la n d ), CSUF p r ov id es in s t r u ct ion in a w id e a r r ay of fu ll-a n d p ll-a r t -t im e u n d er gr ll-a d u ll-a t e ll-a n d gr ll-a d u ll-a t e d e gr ee p r ogr a m s t o over 24,000 s t u d en t s. In a d d it ion t o sem es t er -b a s ed cr ed it p r ogr a m s, CSUF offer s a va r iet y of cr ed it a n d n on -cr ed it cou r s es t h r ou gh it s UE E d e p a r t m en t . T h e ext en s ion p r ogr a m a t CSUF op er a t es a s a “m in i” or s h a d ow ver sion of t h e u n iver s it y w it h it s ow n p er s on n el r es p on s ible for a ca d e-m ic p r ogr a e-m s a n d a d e-m in is t r a t ive fu n ct ion s. Ta ble I s h ow s som e of t h e a ct iv it ies ca r r ied ou t by ea ch of t h ese fu n ct ion a l gr ou p s in CSUF ’s UE E u n it .

UE E offer s cr ed it cou r s es t o m a t r icu la t ed s t u d en t s d u r in g t h e s ever a l in t er s es s ion s (J a n u a r y, a n d J u n e t h r ou gh Au gu st ), m a in ly for st u d en t s w h o w ish t o a cceler a t e t h eir gr a d u a t ion . N on -cr ed it cou r s es a r e offer ed t h r ou gh ou t t h e yea r t o m em b er s of t h e

com m u n it y. All p r ogr a m s offer ed t h r ou gh UE E m u st b e fi n a n cia lly self-su p p or t in g. T h u s t h e or ga n iza t ion st r ives t o op er a t e a s effect ively a n d efficien t ly a s p ossible, lik e a bu sin ess in t h e p r iva t e sect or, or a n on -p r ofi t or ga n iza t ion in t h e p u blic sect or.

UE E w a s est a blish ed in t h e ea r ly 1980s, a n d d u r in g it s fi r s t d eca d e t h e d e p a r t m en t r em a in ed r ela t ively sm a ll a n d u n a m b it iou s, focu sin g m a in ly on ser v icin g in t er session cr ed it cou r ses. A m or e a ggr es sive a p p r oa ch w a s a d op t ed in t h e ea r ly 1990s, a n d a s of 1996/ 1997 CSUF ’s UE E p r ogr a m con sist ed of m or e t h a n 125 fu ll- a n d p a r t -t im e em p loyees (n ot in clu d in g in s t r u ct or s ) offer in g 950 n on -cr ed it cou r ses, 45 cer t ifi ca t es, a n d m or e t h a n 55,000 ext en sion en r ollees.

History of computing at UEE

Wh en UE E fi r s t b e ga n it s op er a t ion s, it a cq u ir ed CP / M-b a sed p er son a l com p u t er s a n d d evelop ed a few st a n d a lon e d a t a b a se (fi le m a n a gem en t ) a p p lica t ion s for som e of t h e a ct iv it ies list ed u n d er “IT r e-en gin eer in g lesson s”. Du e t o t h e r ela t ive in exp er ien ce of t h e n ov ice com p u t er st a ff a t t h a t t im e, t h e a p p lica t ion s t h a t w er e d evelop ed w er e n eit h er in t e gr a t ed n or n et wor k ed . Da t a sh a r -in g a m on g a p p lica t ion s w a s n on exist en t .

Com p u t er sy st em s a p p lica t ion s w it h in t h e u n iver s it y it s elf, h ow ever, w er e d evelop in g a lon g m or e t r a d it ion a l lin es. T h e ca m p u s com p u t er cen t er evolved it s m a in fr a m e a d m in ist r a t ive a n d a ca d em ic su p p or t a p p li-ca t ion s b a sed fi r st on CDC m a in fr a m es a n d DE C VAX m in is, la t er m igr a t in g t o IBM m a in fr a m es a n d Alp h a -m icr o com p u t er s. On t h e in st r u ct ion a l sid e, Ap p le Ma cin t osh p er -son a l com p u t er s p r olifer a t ed d u r in g t h e la t e 1980s d u e p r im a r ily t o Ap p le Com p u t er ’s w elld ocu m en t eelld effor t s t o p en et r a t e t h e eelld u ca -t ion m a r k e-t . T h is w a s a ccom p lis h ed -t h r ou gh a com b in a t ion of gr a n t s a n d exce p t ion a l p r icin g p olicies. T h e Ma cin t osh p en et r a t ion ext en d ed fa r b eyon d t h e b ou n d a r ies of in st r u ct ion so t h a t by t h e en d of t h e 1980s a n d even t h r ou gh t h e m id 1990s, Ap p le M a cin -t osh es cou ld b e fou n d on -t h e d esk s of m os-t u n iver s it y a d m in ist r a t or s a n d t h eir su p p or t st a ff.

In t h e m id 1980s, a n a ct in g d ir ect or of UE E w a s a p p oin t ed w h o b r ou gh t w it h h im a n u n w aver in g d ed ica t ion t o Ap p le Com p u t er p r od u ct s. T h e a ct in g d ir ect or b e ga n a m a jor com p u t er iza t ion of UE E ’s a d m in ist r a t ive fu n ct ion s, a ll b a s ed on t h e Ap p le Ma cin t osh . Over t h e n ext few yea r s, m or e t h a n 75 n ew Ma cin t os h com p u t er s w er e in st a lled in UE E , k ee p in g p a ce w it h t h e gr ow t h of t h e d e p a r t -m en t . An Ap p leTa lk n et wor k w a s

Table I

Unive rs ity e xte nde d e duc atio n func tio nal gro ups / re s po ns ibilitie s

Functional group Responsibility

Academic programming • Course/ program definition

• Instruc tor selec tion and evaluation • Fee determination

• Fac ilities management

M arketing • Competitive analyses

• Public ations

Registration • Student registration

• Student servic es

Accounting • Fees c ollec tion

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im p lem en t ed a s a n a p p lica t ion s er ver for wor k s t a t ion b a ck u p a n d t o su p p or t a va r iet y of sh a r ed Ap p le la ser p r in t er s.

Soft w a r e a p p lica t ion d evelop m en t w it h in t h e d e p a r t m en t evolved in a d isjoin t ed fa s h -ion . Des p it e t h e in cr ea sin g p op u la r it y of in t e gr a t ed clien t / s er ver d a t a b a se sy st em s in bu sin es s, t h er e w a s n o s t r a t e gic soft w a r e a p p lica t ion d evelop m en t p la n w it h in UE E . In st ea d , s t a n d a lon e a p p lica t ion s con t in u ed t o b e d evelop ed on t h e com p u t er of t h e p er s on r esp on s ible for a p a r t icu la r t a sk . T h er e w a s n o fi le s h a r in g a m on g or even w it h in fu n c-t ion s. Da c-t a fr om on e m a ch in e w a s cop ied c-t o a fl op py d is k a n d cop ied a ga in t o a n ot h er m a ch in e. If t h e fi le for m a t s w er e in com p a t ible, for exa m p le b et w een a d a t a b a se a p p lica -t ion a n d a s p r ea d s h ee-t , a h a r d copy of d a -t a w a s p r od u ced a n d r ek eyed on a s econ d m a ch in e. E ven w h en com p u t er a p p lica t ion s on d iffer en t m a ch in es w er e eq u iva len t or sim ila r, t h er e w a s n o on lin e fi le sh a r in g. To com p lica t e t h e sit u a t ion , Ap p le d is con t in u ed ea r ly M a cin t os h m od els a n d in t r od u ced n ew on es, r es u lt in g in a w id e va r iet y of som ew h a t in com p a t ible M a cin t osh com p u t er s w it h in UE E .

At t h e b e gin n in g of t h e 1990s, bu d get cu t -b a ck s a t CSUF r es u lt ed in a n eed t o gen er a t e a d d it ion a l r even u e t h r ou gh en t it ies s u ch a s UE E . A n ew d ea n w a s h ir ed a n d on e of h is in it ia l a ct iv it ies w a s t o con t r a ct w it h a con -su lt a n t t o r ecom m en d a s y s t em s s t r a t e gy for t h e d e p a r t m en t . T h e con s u lt a n t

r ecom m en d ed t h a t UE E h ir e a d ir ect or of in for m a t ion s y st em s, m od er n ize it s sy st em s en v ir on m en t , st a n d a r d ize it s wor k s t a t ion h a r dw a r e, a n d in t e gr a t e it s a p p lica t ion s oft w a r e. F r om a st r a t e gic st a n d p oin t , t h e d es ir -a ble com p u t in g en v ir on m en t for UE E w -a s on e in w h ich a ll u s er s cou ld h ave a cces s t o a n in t e gr a t ed d a t a b a se sy st em . F u r t h er m or e, t h e a p p lica t ion en v ir on m en t n eed ed t o b e im p lem en t ed on p r oven , r elia ble, cos t -effec-t ive h a r dw a r e, a n d d evelop ed w i-effec-t h s-effec-t a n d a r d d evelop m en t m et h od ologies a n d soft w a r e t ools. A t wp h a se st r a t e gic p la n w a s p r o-p os ed . P h a s e On e r eq u ir ed t h e con ver s ion of UE E fr om a n Ap p le t o a n IBM P C (or clon e) wor k p la ce. P h a se Two of t h e s y s t em con ver -sion w a s p la n n ed a s a p a r a llel d evelop m en t of a clien t / s er ver d a t a b a se a p p lica t ion s y st em . T h e r em a in d er of t h is p a p er p r es en t s less on s lea r n ed fr om t h e d evelop m en t a n d im p lem en -t a -t ion of -t h e n ew IT in fr a s -t r u c-t u r e a -t UE E .

Lesson No. 1 : Study computer industry market trends carefully and assess longevity potential dispassionately

Hardware

St r a t e gic d ecision s r e ga r d in g t ech n ology m u s t b e p r ed ica t ed on t h e lon g-t er m v ia b ilit y

of ven d or s. Decis ion s sh ou ld n ot b e b a sed on t ech n ology t r a d e p r ess h y p e a n d h ea d lin es. By 1994, t h e v it a lit y a n d v ia b ilit y of Ap p le Com p u t er a n d it s wor k st a t ion a n d n et wor k -in g p r od u ct s w er e a m a t t er of m a jor con cer n t h r ou gh ou t t h e in t er n a t ion a l bu sin ess en v i-r on m en t . Con cei-r n ed a b ou t t h e p ot en t ia l im p a ct on it s ow n op er a t ion , UE E d ecid ed t o ch a n ge fr om a n Ap p le t o a n IBM P C (or clon e) wor k p la ce. Ot h er su p p or t in g r ea s on s

in clu d ed :

• Ap p le Com p u t er h a d ca p t u r ed less t h a n 10 p er cen t of t h e t ot a l m a r k et p la ce.

• Ap p le’s m a r k et sh a r e w a s con t in u in g t o d ecr ea se.

• T h er e w a s a gr ea t d ea l of u n cer t a in t y a b ou t t h e fu t u r e v ia b ilit y of Ap p le Com p u t er. • T h er e w a s a w id e select ion of IBM P C com

-p a t ible -p la t for m s a n d -p er i-p h er a ls. • Vir t u a lly a ll com p u t er -b a sed bu s in ess

sy st em s w er e (a n d con t in u e t o b e) im p lem en t ed on IBM P C a n d n ot on Ap p le p la t -for m s.

• T h er e w a s a n in cr ea s in g p r olifer a t ion of soft w a r e d evelop m en t t ools for P C com p a t i-bles.

• T h er e w a s a w id e a n d in cr ea sin g r a n ge of a p p lica t ion soft w a r e ava ila ble for P Cs. • H a r dw a r e p er ip h er a ls a n d soft w a r e for P C

p la t for m s w er e r ea son a bly p r iced in com -p a r ison t o eq u iva len t -p r od u ct s for A-p -p le com p u t er s.

• For t h e for eseea ble fu t u r e, w h et h er or n ot t h eir p r od u ct s w er e st a t eoft h ea r t , ven -d or s su ch a s Micr osoft a n -d In t el h a -d a p p ea r ed t o r e p la ce “IBM” in t h e r efr a in of t h e 1960s a n d 1970s t h a t “N o on e ever lost t h eir job ch oosin g IBM”.

Ope rating syste ms

Ch oices for t h e op er a t in g sy st em for UE E in clu d ed Un ix, N ovell, OS/ 2, a n d Win d ow s N T. Sin ce In t el-b a sed P C wor k s t a t ion s h a d b een select ed for t h e en d -u ser s, a n In t el-b a sed P C s er ver p la t for m w a s select ed for con sis-t en cy a s w ell a s sis-t o m a xim ize sis-t h e p r ob a b ilisis-t y of com p a t ib ilit y. For a ll p r a ct ica l p u r p oses t h is elim in a t ed Un ix a s a ca n d id a t e. IBM’s OS/ 2, d esp it e a p p ea r in g t o h ave m a n y of t h e fu n ct ion s d es ir ed for t h e p la n n ed clien t / ser ver en v ir on m en t , s im p ly d id n ot a p p ea r t o b e a p op u la r ch oice a m on g bu sin esses w it h n eed s s im ila r t o UE E ’s. N ovell a t t h e t im e h a d a sign ifi ca n t m a r k et sh a r e in sim ila r

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N ovell, w h o s eem ed t o b e v u ln er a ble t o M icr os oft ’s p la n s for N T.

Micr os oft ’s N T 4.0 Ser ver a n d t h e r ela t ively low -p r iced bu n d led s y st em soft w a r e Ba ck Of-fi ce w er e s elect ed , a lt h ou gh t h e Of-fi r s t ver s ion d id n ot h ave a ll t h e fu n ct ion s t h a t wou ld even -t u a lly b e r eq u ir ed for -t h e UE E s y s -t em . I-t w a s felt t h a t it w a s lik ely t h a t by t h e t im e t h e UE E clien t / ser ver s y s t em w a s fu lly im p lem en t ed , t h e r eq u ir ed fu n ct ion s wou ld b e ava ila ble fr om M icr os oft or fr om a n ot h er su p p or t in g s oft w a r e ven d or.

Applic atio n so ftware

An a n a ly s is of UE E ’s M a cin t osh a p p lica t ion s oft w a r e w a s p er for m ed a n d a p la n w a s d evel-op ed t o p r ov id e en d -u ser s w it h eq u iva len t s oft w a r e fu n ct ion a lit y on t h e IBM P C p la t -for m . Du e t o t h e s u ccess of M icr os oft ’s in t e-gr a t ed s u it e of p r od u ct iv it y s oft w a r e, Office, a n d it s exce p t ion a lly low p r ice, t h e d ecision w a s m a d e t o s t a n d a r d ize on t h a t p r od u ct . Ta ble II id en t ifi es t h e M a cin t osh a p p lica t ion s t h a t r eq u ir ed con ver sion a n d t h e IBM P C p la t for m solu t ion for ea ch .

Lesson No. 2 : Use interim solutions to assist the transitioning process Som e p r oject s a r e d esign ed for a com p let e ch a n geover on a sp ecifi c d a t e, ot h er s a r e p h a sed in over t im e. P h a sed -in p r oject s en cou n t er p r oblem s w h en t a sk s a r e in t er d e-p en d en t . A cr it ica l fu n ct ion t h a t m u st b e su p p or t ed t h r ou gh ou t t h e t r a n s it ion m igh t d e p en d on a t a sk t h a t r elies on a ca p a b ilit y t h a t is n ot sch ed u led for im p lem en t a t ion u n t il t h e la t t er p a r t of t h e t r a n sit ion . An in t er im solu t ion is n eed ed . T h is sit u a t ion a r ose a t UE E w h en on e of t h e st a n d a lon e a n d cu st om ized sin gle u ser d a t a b a s e a p p lica t ion s w a s t o b e con ver t ed in t o a clien t / s er ver a p p ca t ion d u r in g P h a se Two. T h e exist in g a p p li-ca t ion w a s a Ma cin t osh -b a sed p u r ch a se or d er m a n a gem en t in for m a t ion m a n a gem en t sy s-t em for s-t h e a ccou n s-t in g d e p a r s-t m en s-t s-t h a s-t h a d b een d evelop ed u sin g t h e d a t a b a se p r od u ct , F ileMa k er. Re p la cin g t h e a ccou n t in g d e p a r t -m en t ’s Ma cin t os h es w it h P Cs d u r in g P h a se On e w a s clea r ly in con fl ict w it h t h e n eed t o con t in u e t o r u n t h is a p p lica t ion .

Table II

IBM PC platfo rm re plac e me nts fo r Mac into s h pro duc ts

M acintosh product IBM platform replacement Primary UEE user

Word, Excel, PowerPoint These produc ts were available within Mic rosoft Offic e • Ac ademic programmers on IBM PC platforms, and at a higher version release • Marketing

than for Mac intoshes

InForm M anager Available for IBM PCs; the PC version reads Mac intosh- • Ac c ounting c reated “ forms” . With the eventual availability of the

c lient/ server system, InForm Manager forms and usage would eventually be made obsolete

OrgPlus – an organization The func tionality of this produc t was available • Administrative servic es

chart builder within PowerPoint

A generic personal Available in Mic rosoft Offic e • Administrative servic es

schedule manager

Screen savers The multiplic ity of sc reen savers (some of whic h • All UEE func tions were of questionable origin) c ould be replac ed with a

Windows version. A side benefit was the ability to enforc e a single, professional sc reen saver standard throughout UEE and eliminate many of the sc reen savers that were of questionable taste

3270 terminal emulators – With only a few minor differenc es, IBM PC and • Student registration

for access to the campus Mac intosh 3 2 7 0 emulating software is

mainframe student almost identic al

registration system

QuickM ail – a Quic kMail for PCs c ould be made available on a PC/ • All UEE func tions

campus-wide electronic Mac intosh hardware e-mail server c ombination

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A d ecision w a s m a d e t o in ves t p r ogr a m m in g r esou r ces t o r ew r it e t h e F ileM a k er a p p lica t ion in M icr os oft Access, t h e r ela t ion a l d a t a b a se m a n a ger w it h in t h e Office su it e of soft -w a r e. T h is -w a s d on e d es p it e t h e fa ct t h a t t h e a p p lica t ion wou ld even t u a lly b e s u b su m ed w it h in t h e in t e gr a t ed clien t / s er ver s y s t em . T h er e w er e a t lea st t h r ee b en efi t s d er ived fr om t h is a ct iv it y :

1 T h e p r oject p r ov id ed a t r a in in g op p or t u -n it y for t h e soft w a r e e-n gi-n eer a s sig-n ed t o t h is t a s k s in ce sh e w a s, a t t h e t im e, r ela t ively u n fa m ilia r w it h M icr os oft ’s d a t a -b a s e p r od u ct s.

2 Beca u s e a r ed es ign ed ver s ion of t h e a p p li-ca t ion w a s goin g t o b e d evelop ed a s p a r t of t h e P h a s e Two sy s t em im p lem en t a t ion , t h e r e p r ogr a m m in g a ct iv it y wou ld p r ov id e im p or t a n t in p u t in t o t h e d esign of t h is m od u le in t h e clien t / s er ver s y s t em . 3 Da t a con ver s ion / t r a n s fer wou ld even t u

a lly b e r eq u ir ed b et w een t h e old M a cin -t os h a ccou n -t in g m od u le a n d -t h e n ew P C-b a s ed r ela t ion a l d a t a C-b a se. T h e in t er im a p p lica t ion ’s Access d a t a fi les wou ld b e com p let ely com p a t ible w it h t h e fi le s t r u c-t u r es of c-t h e P h a se Two s y s c-t em (SQL-Ser ver ) a n d cou ld ea sily b e im p or t ed in t o t h e m a s t er d a t a b a se a t t h e p r op er t im e. Wh en t h e in t er im Micr os oft Access a p p lica t ion w a s com p let ed , t h e a ccou n t in g d e p a r t -m en t ’s M a cin t osh es w er e r e p la ced w it h P Cs w it h ou t los in g t h e p u r ch a se or d er ca p a b ilit y. Alt h ou gh t h e Access a p p lica t ion wou ld b e d is ca r d ed w it h t h e com p let ion of P h a s e Two, it wou ld s er ve it s p u r p ose a n d p r ov id e a d d ed b en efi t s t o t h e en t ir e p r oject .

Lesson No. 3 : Personnel are more likely to cooperate and assist others when

convinced that technology changes will be beneficial to their own jobs

T h e s u cces s or fa ilu r e of a t ech n ologica l t r a n s for m a t ion m ay h in ge on t h e m a n n er in w h ich t h e ch a n ge p r ocess is m a n a ged . P r op er p r e p a r a t ion a n d com m u n ica t ion w it h en d -u s er s a r e cr it ica l. In or d er t o p r e p a r e UE E for P h a s e On e of t h e p r oject , gr ou p m eet in gs w er e con d u ct ed t o d es cr ib e t h e p la n for r e p la cin g t h e Ma cin t os h es. In for m a t ion r e ga r d in g exis t in g p r oblem s w a s collect ed fr om t h e en d -u ser s. T h e m os t v is ible of t h ese p r oblem s in clu d ed slow n et wor k p r in t in g (or som et im es n o p r in t in g ca p a b ilit y ), a n d a n in a b ilit y t o r u n t h e la t es t ver s ion s of Office. T h es e p r oblem s w er e d u e t o t h e va r iet y of a ged a n d u n r elia ble M a cin t osh es, in clu d in g som e w it h in s u fficien t r es ou r ces t o r u n u p gr a d ed s oft w a r e. Su b seq u en t m eet in gs p r es en t ed exp la n a t ion s of h ow t h e n ew s y s -t em s wou ld a d d r ess -t h os e p r oblem s. A-t -t h os e

ses sion s a n exp ect a t ion w a s cr ea t ed t h a t t h e n ew s y st em s wou ld elim in a t e m a n y, if n ot m ost of t h e com p u t er p r oblem s t h a t w er e b ein g exp er ien ced . Wh ile m a n y en d -u ser s r em a in ed sk e p t ica l, som e of t h e p er s on n el w er e en t h u sed a n d w er e k een t o volu n t eer for fi r st u se of t h e n ew m a ch in es. T h ese wor k er s b eca m e va lu a ble in st r u m en t s of ch a n ge.

Lesson No. 4 : Identify users who can easily adapt to change and use them as agents of change

Follow in g t h e gr ou p m eet in gs, en d -u ser s w er e id en t ifi ed w h o w er e a lr ea dy fa m ilia r w it h t h e t a r get p la t for m a n d / or w er e m ost lik ely t o a d a p t t o t h e n ew sy st em w it h t h e lea st d ifficu lt y. Two su ch in d iv id u a ls w er e select ed (or volu n t eer ed ) w it h in ea ch of t h e UE E fu n ct ion a l gr ou p s a n d t h ey w er e sch ed -u led t o b ecom e t h e fi r st P C/ N T -u ser s w it h in t h eir d e p a r t m en t s. T h e sp ecifi c soft w a r e a p p lica t ion n eed s of ea ch in d iv id u a l w er e id en t ifi ed , for t h e m os t p a r t r efl ect in g t h e even t u a l soft w a r e t h a t wou ld b e in s t a lled on t h e m a ch in es of t h e ot h er m em b er s of t h eir fu n ct ion a l gr ou p s.

Ma ch in es w er e or d er ed for t h is fi r st gr ou p of ea r ly a d a p t er s, a n d a p p r op r ia t e soft w a r e w a s in st a lled for ea ch . By t h is t im e t h e r eq u ir ed h a r dw a r e/ soft w a r e in fr a s t r u ct u r e w a s in p la ce. T h e p h y sica l fa cilit y w a s r ew ir ed w it h E t h er n et ca blin g a n d w it h con -n ect or s a t ea ch wor k st a t io-n sit e. T h e N T Wor k st a t ion P Cs w er e con fi gu r ed so t h a t t h e N T d es k t op icon s (a p p lica t ion s a n d fold er s) wou ld b e a s sim ila r a s p os sible t o t h e Ma cin -t osh d esk -t op s w i-t h w h ich u ser s w er e fa m ilia r. N T p er m iss ion -set t in g fu n ct ion s w er e u sed t o set u p t h e wor k s t a t ion s so t h a t sy st em fu n c-t ion s a n d sec-t c-t in gs cou ld n oc-t b e a lc-t er ed by c-t h e u ser. For exa m p le, t h e Win d ow s Re gist r y, w a llp a p er, a n d scr een saver set t in gs w er e con fi gu r ed t o b e p r ot ect ed fr om en d -u ser t a m p er in g.

E a ch p er son w a s p r ov id ed w it h a b r ief, in d iv id u a lized fa m ilia r iza t ion ses sion con -cer n in g t h e P C a n d t h e N T in t er fa ce, a n d if r eq u est ed , a su m m a r y t ext b ook d escr ib in g Win d ow s N T fu n ct ion s. Aft er a b ou t t wo w eek s, t h e fr eq u en cy of a ssis t a n ce ca lls t o UE E ’s E n d -User Su p p or t r e ga r d in g t h e n ew p la t for m w a s n e gligible. T h e su cces s of t h e fi r s t gr ou p w a s q u ick ly b ecom in g a t op ic of con ver sa t ion a m on g t h e st a ff, a n d t h e ea se w it h w h ich t h e fi r st gr ou p a d a p t ed t o t h e n ew m a ch in es en cou r a ged p eop le t o volu n t eer for n ew P Cs.

Lesson No. 5 : Do not force change to take place at an unrealistic pace

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a n d fi ve m or e en d -u s er s w it h in ea ch fu n c-t ion a l gr ou p w er e selecc-t ed c-t o r eceive c-t h em . T h e n ew gr ou p w a s select ed p r im a r ily b eca u s e t h eir offices w er e p h y sica lly clos e t o t h e fi r st gr ou p of N T u ser s. T h is w a s d on e s o t h a t if n ew u ser s h a d p r oblem s or q u est ion s, t h er e wou ld b e s om eon e clos e by t o h elp t h em . As a r es u lt , t h e n ext p a r t of t h e r ollou t w en t a lm os t a s sm oot h ly a s t h e fi r s t . In a d d t ion , t h e ea r ly a d a p t er s s oon b eca m e id en t i-fi ed a s a r esou r ce t o d r aw u p on for q u es t ion s on u s e of t h e n ew P Cs.

Lesson No. 6 : Be prepared to deal with technophobic workers

In t h e fi n a l p h a s e of t h e r ollou t in volv in g a p p r oxim a t ely 50 m or e en d -u s er s, it w a s n ot ed t h a t t h er e w a s a gr ou p of wor k er s w h o w er e les s com for t a ble w it h t h e p r op os ed ch a n ges a n d com p u t er s in gen er a l. For t h ese u ser s a con ver s ion fr om t h e d esk t op

m et a p h or of t h e M a cin t osh t o t h a t of t h e IBM P Cs w a s n ot ea sy. Wh ile Win d ow s 95 a n d N T h a d com e a lon g w ay, t h er e w er e st ill en ou gh d iffer en ces t o con fu se en d -u s er s w h ose m a in p u r p os e in u sin g a com p u t er w a s t o ju st a ccom p lish a wor k -r ela t ed t a s k . E ven t r iv ia l d iffer en ces su ch a s sin gle ver s u s d ou ble click -in g or t h e u s e of a on e- or t wo-bu t t on m ou se ca n b e m a jor h ea d a ch es for or d in a r y com -p u t er en d -u s er s.

Recogn izin g t h e n a t u r e of t h e wor k for ce, a less a m b it iou s im p lem en t a t ion s ch ed u le w a s a d op t ed for t h is fi n a l gr ou p. M or e “h a n d h old in g”, a n d in d iv id u a lized a t t en t ion w a s a n t icip a t ed . On eon on e, p er s on a lized t r a in in g p r ogr a m s w er e p r ov id ed for k ey p er son -n el w h o w er e v iew ed a s b ei-n g s om ew h a t t ech n op h ob ic. T h is fi n a l r ollou t t u r n ed ou t t o b e ea s ier t h a n exp ect ed b eca u s e of t h e ava il-a b ilit y of on -sit e “exp er t s ” w it h in t h eir ow n fu n ct ion s (s ee Les s on N o. 4). Wit h in a p p r oxi-m a t ely fou r oxi-m on t h s, a ll of UE E h a d b een s u cces sfu lly a n d r ela t ively u n even t fu lly con -ver t ed t o Win d ow s N T p la t for m s.

Lesson No. 7 : Utilize “excessed” hardware if possible

Wh en a n n ou n cem en t s w er e m a d e r e ga r d in g t h e p la n t o con ver t , m a n y s t a ff m em b er s in q u ir ed a b ou t t h e fa t e of t h e M a cin t osh h a r dw a r e. Most of t h e old er s y st em s w er e of n o va lu e, b ein g in a d eq u a t e t o r u n con t em p o-r a o-r y s oft w a o-r e a p p lica t ion s. H ow eveo-r, n ew eo-r a n d fa s t er m a ch in es t h a t cou ld b e u p gr a d ed w it h m em or y (t a k en fr om even old er Ma cin -t os h es ) w er e ca n d id a -t es for r ed e p loy m en -t . Red e p loy m en t ea ses bu d get a r y p r es s u r es s in ce cer t a in p r ocu r em en t s m ay b e d efer r ed in t o t h e fu t u r e. Two t y p es of en d -u ser s w er e id en t ifi ed t h a t cou ld u t ilize u p gr a d ed Ma cin -t os h es : S-t u d en -t Re gis-t r a -t ion a n d -t h e UE E s t u d en t a ss ist a n t s.

St u d en t Re gist r a t ion ’s p r im a r y u se of p er -son a l com p u t er s (a b ou t t en m a ch in es) w a s a s 3270 em u la t ed t er m in a ls a ccessin g ca m p u s m a in fr a m e a d m in ist r a t ive s y st em s, a n d for ca m p u s e-m a il. Ra t h er t h a n in vest in n ew N T-m a ch in es for t h ese p eop le, it w a s d ecid ed t h a t t h ose fu n ct ion s cou ld ea s ily b e ca r r ied ou t u sin g t h e b est old Ma cin t osh es in t h e in ven -t or y.

UE E em p loy s a p p r oxim a t ely 25 st u d en t a ssist a n t s w h ose p r im a r y com p u t in g a ct iv i-t ies a r e e-m a il w ii-t h i-t h eir su p er v isor s, a n d wor d p r ocessin g of t h eir su p er v is or s ’ let t er s, r e p or t s, et c. It w a s felt t h a t t h er e w a s n o n eed t o q u ick ly d e p loy N T m a ch in es for t h ese u ser s, s o ea ch st u d en t w a s p r ov id ed w it h on e of t h e “b et t er ” r em a in in g Ma cin t osh es. E ven -t u a lly, s-t u d en -t su p er v is or s wou ld r eq u ir e -t h a -t t h eir st u d en t s b e u p gr a d ed t o N T-com p a t ible m a ch in es, a n d t h e bu d get w a s a d ju st ed a ccor d in gly.

Lesson No. 8 : Purchase the most powerful hardware available

Ut ilizin g t h e “excessed ” h a r dw a r e a n d d efer r in g p r ocu r em en t s p er m it t ed UE E t o p u r -ch a se few er, m or e p ow er fu l P Cs for t h e sa m e bu d get . Du r in g t h e in it ia l p r ocu r em en t p h a se t h e In t el fa m ily of P en t iu m p r ocessor s u n d er -w en t sign ifi ca n t ch a n ges in ava ila b ilit y, p r ice a n d ca p a b ilit y. In a d d it ion , t h e cu r r en t t r en d for a p p lica t ion soft w a r e t o gr ow la r ger a n d m or e m em or y h u n gr y sh ow s n o sign of d im in ish in g. It w a s felt t h a t t h e fa st est ava il-a ble p r ocessor wou ld p r ov id e t h e lon gest p ot en t ia l u t ilit y a n d wou ld d elay t h e n eed for r e p la cem en t s. Con seq u en t ly, UE E p a id a p r em iu m t o p u r ch a se t h e fa st est ava ila ble p r ocessor ea ch t im e a n or d er w a s p la ced . T h e fi r st b a t ch of m a ch in es u sed 133 MH z p r ocessor s, a n d t h e fi n a l b a t ch u s ed 200 M H z P en -t iu m P r o p r oces sor s.

Wh en , a s a n t icip a t ed , t h e fi r st st u d en t Ma cin t osh u ser s ’ n eed for com p a t ible N T m a ch in es b eca m e a p p a r en t , 233 MH z

P en t iu m p r ocessor -b a sed P Cs w er e ava ila ble. T h ose n ew m a ch in es w er e a cq u ir ed a n d su b -st it u t ed for t h e ea r lier -d e p loyed 133 MH z P Cs, t h er eby a llow in g p r ofession a l st a ff t o r eceive st a t e-of-t h e-a r t P Cs w h ile t h e s t u d en t s r eceived t h e old er a n d s low er 133 M H z m a ch in es. E a ch t im e n ew m a ch in es w er e or d er ed , eit h er for n ew s t a ff or t o r e p la ce Ma cin t osh es, a r e-exa m in a t ion of a ll u ser s’ com p u t in g n eed s w a s p er for m ed t o d et er -m in e w h ich u s er s cou ld b est u t ilize t h e in cr ea sed p ow er of a n ew m a ch in e.

Conclusions

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im p lied t h a t t h e ver y sa m e s t r a t e gies cou ld b e u s ed for a con ver s ion / d e p loy m en t of m a n y m or e u s er s a n d com p u t er s, i.e., t h e UE E st r a t -e gy w a s s ca l-ea bl-e. In fa ct , a f-ew m on t h s a ft -er t h e com p let ion of p h a se on e, t h e u n iver s it y b e ga n p la n n in g a s im ila r bu t m or e w id e-sca le p er s on a l com p u t er s t a n d a r d iza t ion p r ocess a cr os s t h e en t ir e or ga n iza t ion . T h e UE E exp e-r ien ce p e-r ov id ed va lu a ble in p u t t ow a e-r d s t h e p la n n in g of t h a t p r oject .

On e fi n a l ob ser va t ion : Per son a l com p u t er folk lor e r ein for ces a m et a p h or con cer n in g “r eligion -lik e” d iffer en ces b et ween Ma cin t osh a n d Win d ow s u ser s. Lew is (1997) d escr ib es t h is a s a for m of “t r ib a lism ”. Wh et h er t h eir p a ssion is b est d escr ib ed a s t r ib a list ic or r eligiou slik e, it is ver y, ver y d ifficu lt t o con -ver t Ma cin t osh u ser s t o IBM P C p la t for m s. However, d isa p p r ova l of Micr osoft ’s bu sin ess p r a ct ices a n d / or a d m ir a t ion for Ap p le’s in con t est a ble h ist or ic con t r ibu t ion t o p er -son a l com p u t in g ca n n ot b e fa ct or s in m a k in g p r a ct ica l bu sin ess d ecision s. Wh en cost b en efi t s a n d wor k efeficien cy m u st b e gu id in g p r in -cip les, sh eer em ot ion ca n n ot st a n d in t h e w ay of p r ogr ess. In CSUF ’s UE E , p r ofession a l a t t it u d es t ow a r d s p r ogr ess wer e a m ot iva t in g fa ct or in fa cilit a t in g t h e m ovem en t of t h e u n it for w a r d fr om it s en t r en ch ed com p u t in g cu l-t u r e l-t ow a r d s a m or e con l-t em p or a r y, efficien l-t wor k en v ir on m en t .

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