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A TENOR COMPARATIVE STUDY ON NEWS TEXTS IN THE
JAKARTA POST AND LONDON EVENING STANDARD
NEWSPAPER RELATED TO THE SMOKING BAN IN
PUBLIC PLACES
(Based on Systemic Functional Linguistics)
THESIS
Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of Requirement For The Sarjana Sastra Degree at the English Department
Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University
By:
DEWI WINAHYU JATI
C1306002
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LETTERS AND FINE ARTS
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY
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PRONOUNCEMENT
Name : Dewi Winahyu Jati
NIM : C1306002
Stated wholeheartedly that the thesis entitled A Tenor Comparative
Study on News Texts in The Jakarta Post and London Evening Standard
Newspaper Related to the Smoking Ban in Public Places (Based on Systemic
Functional Linguistics) is originally made by the researcher. This is not plagiarism
nor made by others. The things related to the other people’s work are written in
quotations and included within the bibliography.
If it is then proven that the researcher cheats, the researcher is ready to
take the responsibility.
Surakarta, July 2011
The researcher
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MOTTO
"Health, happiness and success depend upon the fighting spirit of each person. The big
thing is not what happens to us in life - but what we do about what happens to us."
(
George Allen)
“Sometimes crying, sometimes getting worse, life isn’t always perfect
But, thankfulness to ALLAH SWT is the best thing
to make us remember who we are”
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis to:
My beloved parents ((alm)bapak samto
& ibu prapti)
My beloved sister (Ika Astuti)
My Thesis Supervisor (Bapak
Djatmika)
My Lecturers
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillahirrobbil’alamin
All praises just for Allah SWT for the blessing, love and guidance so that
the researcher can complete this thesis. This thesis will not complete without
support and encouragement from many people. Therefore, the researcher would
like to express her gratitude to the following persons who have given important
contribution to this thesis. I would like to express my great appreciation deeply to:
1. The Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, Drs. Riyadi Santosa, M.Ed.,
Ph.D., for approving this thesis
2. The Head of Non-Regular English Department, Drs. S. Budi Waskito, M.Pd.,
for giving me permission to write this thesis.
3. Prof. Dr. Djatmika, M.A, my thesis supervisor, for his guidance, patience,
support, and advice in completing this thesis.
4. All my lecturers in English Department thank you very much for all
knowledge given to me.
5. My examiner team: Dr. Sri Marmanto, M.Hum, Karunia Purna K,S.S., M.Si,
Prof. Dr. Djatmika, M.A and Dr.Tri Wiratno, MA thank you for being my
thesis examiners.
6. My beloved parents, (alm) Bapak Samto and Ibu Sri Suprapti, you are the best
for me. Thank you very much for your time, love, patience, care and attention.
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viii
spiritually during my study. I miss you, dad and I love you, mom. You are
everything for me.
7. My beloved sister, Ika Astuti. You are the best sister I have ever had. You are
my inspiration for always making me to move on. I will also be thankful for
your husband (mas Hasim) and your cute child (Ganendra). You are all being
my spirit and happiness. Dedek Ganendra always makes me laugh and cheers
me up, I love you so much.
8. My big family in Boyolali, Purwokerto, Kebumen and Batang, thank you so
much for the support, prayer, and love.
9. Haryanto “Mas Hary”. Thank you so much for always staying with me in
every moment, both in sadness and happiness. You always remind me to be
patient and keep smiling. Thank you for the prayer, support, love, attention
and everything.
10.My ‘bubu’, ‘bory’ and ‘miory’ which always stay with me during finishing my
study in Solo. I love you so much.
11.My best friends Dian and Pina, both of you are sisters for me. Thank you so
much for always staying with me in sadness and happiness. To Dian, thanks a
lot for accompanying me to finish the thesis. To Pina who doesn’t want to be
called ‘Fina’, thank you for your time. To Ti-chan, thank you for the
friendship, I miss to hang out together like what we did in the past. To Citra,
thank you for the nice friendship, when will we meet again, hang out, eat out
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12.All my friends in English Department NR ’06 and ‘07, thank you for the nice
friendship. Always keep in touch! To ‘Yume’ and Jenk Tri thank you for
supporting me to finish the thesis, and always cheering me up. To Junior, I am
sorry and thank you for the advice.
13.My lovely friends and sisters in boarding house, Jeng Lisa, Jenk Kemi, Nduk
Teguh, Gini, Rina, Mbak May and Mbak Nita. To Jenk Lisa, thank you so
much for your tasty food, care, support and love. To Dicma’s family, thank
you so much for the nice friendship.
14. For those who have not been listed yet, it does not mean that I have neglected
your support and help. Thank you so much.
Finally, the researcher realizes that this thesis is not perfect. Therefore, the
comments and suggestions are needed to make this thesis better. I hope that this
thesis will be useful for others.
The researcher
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER ………
APPROVAL OF THESIS SUPERVISOR ………..
APPROVAL OF THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS.
PRONOUNCEMENT ……….
I. CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background ……….... 1
B. Problem Statements ………... 5
C. Research Limitation ……… 5
D. Research Objectives ………... 6
E. Research Significance ………. 6
F. Research Benefits ………... 6
G. Research Methodology ………. 7
H. Thesis Organization ……….. 8
II. CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW A. Mass Media ……….. 9
B. Systemic Functional Linguistics ……….. 13
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D. Register ………. 15
E. Tenor as the Realization of Interpersonal Meaning ……….. 16
F. Lexicogrmmar ………. 18
G. Cohesion ………... 35
H. Text Structure ……….. 38
I. Genre ……… 38
1. Factual Genre ……… 40
2. Story Genre ……… 47
III. CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A. Type of Research ... 52
B. Data and Source Data ... 52
C. Sample and Sampling Technique ………. 53
D. Research Procedure ……….. 53
E. Technique of Collecting Data ... 54
F. Procedure Data Analysis ………... 54
IV. CHAPTER IV: DATA INTERPETATION AND DISCUSSION A. Introduction ……… ... 56
B. Data Description ……… 57
C. Data Interpretation ……….… 89
D. Discussion ……… . 108
V. CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION A. Conclusion ……….… 115
B. Recommendation ………...… 118
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Table 2.12 Table of unfused finite of interrogative structure ………. 26
Table 2.13 Table of mood adjunct ……….. 26
Table 2.27 Table of discussion genre….….………. 46
Table 2.28 Table of recount genre ……….. 48
Table 4.3 Table of interdependence and logico-semantic relation of text 1 …. 58 Table 4.4 Table of nominal groups of text 1 ………. 59
Table 4.5 Table of verbal groups of text 1 ……… 60
Table 4.6 Table of text structure of text 1 ………. 64
Table 4.7 Table of mood system of text 2 ………. 73
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Figure of tenor ………... 17
Figure 2.2 Figure of mood system ………... 22
Figure 2.3 Figure of modality system ……… 24
Figure 4.1 Figure of lexical strings of text 1 ……….. 67
Figure 4.2 Figure of conjunctive relation of text 1 ………. 71
Figure 4.3 Figure of lexical strings of text 2 ……….. 88
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1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background
Social connection is a quite tight to mass media. The role of the mass
media in the communication process is often seen by many as being beneficial.
People easily get a lot of updated information or news everyday which is not only
a politic matters, but also technology, health, education, fashion, sport,
entertainment even regional cuisine. According to Bachtiar Hakim (2008),
newspaper only concerned in politic issue because it is used by politics parties to
keep on their authority. In Washington and Jefferson era, newspaper was really in
dark era, because the news was used as the media to fall down each party.
Moreover, lately centuries, mass media runs rapidly to be more advanced, for
instance it has a part in providing the public opinion columns to express the
people’s view as a response of that news.
Newspaper is one kind of mass media that has a wide variety of material
consumed by the largest people in the world. The practical, cheap and easy
functions are the reasons they use it. It is practical because of the variety which
contains the editorial opinions, criticisms, persuasions, entertainment features
such as crosswords, sudoku and horoscopes, weather news and forecast, advice
column, food column and other columns, like reviews of movies, plays and
restaurants. Second, it is cheap. People need a few bucks to buy the printed
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instance book shops, stores, even newspaper subscriptions or more than the three
of reasons; the simplest one is reading the news on the internet.
Newspaper on the internet or online newspaper has a similar form with
printed newspaper, but we do not get a problem in searching the previous news.
By clicking what date of publishing the news in ‘search’ column, we will get any
date or many local, national and international newspapers that we want.
The largest English language newspaper in Indonesia is The Jakarta post.
It is an influential newspaper oriented towards local English-speaking expatriates
and the diplomatic community. In many ways, it acts as an unofficial mouthpiece
of the Indonesian government into the international community, while in another
country, we know the newspaper namely London Evening Standard. It is the
dominant regional evening newspaper for London and the southeast of England
which covers of national and international news and a strong emphasis on City of
London finance. The researcher uses both of the newspapers as the source of data
in this research.
The Jakarta Postentitled ‘Jakarta to scrap smoking rooms in public places
and buildings’ was published on March 30th
, 2010 by Indah Setiawati
(www.thejakartapost.com) while London Evening Standardentitled ‘should we be
smoke free?’ was published on October 27th, 2003 by Ross Lydall
(www.thisislondon.co.uk). Those newspapers have difference writers and
publishers, but they have similar topics which tell about a smoking ban in public
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not been getting the solution yet, because many aspects must be considered before
taking the decision whether it is banned or not.
Smoking ban has been becoming the big issue since 1575 and inviting a
big attention for public in the world. One of the world's earliest smoking bans was
a 1575 Mexican religious council ban that banned the use of tobacco in any
church in Mexico and Spanish colonies in the Caribbean. In the late of the 20th
century, the smoking ban more referred to health reason, particularly for
secondhand tobacco. The industry of tobacco held an awareness campaign as a
tolerance for people who get the impact of smoke when they were in public
places, but the industry avoided smoking ban.
In 2007, America followed to restrict the ban of smoking in public places,
54% of Americans favored a complete ban inside of restaurants, 34% favored a
ban in all hotel rooms, and 29% favored a ban inside of bars. Based on the general
views of smoking ban above, the researcher intends to develop a deeper research
by researching through taking smoking ban issues which occurs in Indonesia and
London in news column from the Jakarta Post and London Evening Standard
newspapers, and it uses Systemic Functional Linguistics as the research approach.
Newspapers need interesting stories. Sometimes the writer even creates
stories where there is no absolute evidence and ambiguous. It relates to the
language and context is used. For example ‘eyes half closed, he then blew straight
into everyone else’s face’. It is not clear what the speaker actually means, about
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Suzanne Eggins (1994: 8) says without further contextual information, it is not
possible to determine which meaning is being made. It means that information is
used to know the kinds of meaning which present in language and how these
meanings relate to the context in which people speak, write, hear and read
(Kappagoda, 2009). In Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), contextual
information consists of context of situation and culture.
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is taken as basis to make research
possible to conduct since it is designed to account for how the language is used.
The study of SFL views language as a system of meanings, accompanied by the
forms through which the meaning can be realized. A lot of meanings of text can
be found by this study, start from identifying context of situation (register) in its
text up to the way the writer constructs his/her opinion. Tenor is one of the
register theories concerning with the status, affect, and contact of the participant
who are involved in event of a text. The genre itself is seen as ‘a staged, goal
oriented social process’ (Martin, 1992: 505). Genre is a stage because meaning is
made in steps while genre as a goal oriented social process meaning a process of
interaction among member of culture to reach their goal.
Based on the phenomenon above, the research is entitled “A Tenor
Comparative Study on News Texts in The Jakarta Post and London Evening
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B. Problem Statements
Based on the research background, some questions are formulated as
follows:
1. How is the status realized in the news text in “The Jakarta Post and
London Evening Standard” newspaper?
2. How is the affect realized in the news text in “The Jakarta Post and
London Evening Standard” newspaper?
3. How is the contact realized in the news text in “The Jakarta Post and
London Evening Standard” newspaper?
4. What are the similarities and differences of the news text in “The
Jakarta Post and London Evening Standard” newspaper?
C. Research Limitation
The research only focuses on the news texts concerning smoking ban news
taken from the online newspapers and published on The Jakarta Post in March
30th, 2010 and London Evening Standard in October 27th, 2003.
This research is aimed to know the reaction of the newspapers writer and
public toward the smoking ban in public places between Jakarta (in The Jakarta
Post newspaper) and London (in London Evening Standard newspaper). The
research applies theory of SFL, specifically in the tenor analysis. It limits to
discover the similarities and differences of three elements of tenor; they are status,
affect and contact of both texts through analyzing lexicogrammar, cohesion and
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D. Research Objectives
The goal of the research is to know how the tenor of news texts published
on the Jakarta Post and London Evening Standard Newspaper concerning the
smoking ban in public places. In more detail, these research objectives are:
1. To describe the status realized in the news text in both newspapers.
2. To describe the affect realized in the news text in both newspapers.
3. To describe the contact realized in the news text in both newspapers.
4. To discover the similarities and differences of the news text in both
newspapers.
E. Research Significance
The research is significant for the researcher to describe and determine the
tenor of texts of news column of The Jakarta Post and London Evening Standard
Newspaper dealing with smoking ban in public places in Indonesia and London.
The description includes many aspects from which the tenor of the text can be
seen through lexico-grammar system, cohesion and genre.
F. Research Benefits
This research contributes at first hand to the greater understanding of text
analysis in the perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics. The research is
then expected to be beneficial for:
1. The English Department Students
This research can be additional references in learning Linguistics
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This research contributes to other researchers in giving ideas to analyze
further about tenor or other point of view about Systemic Functional
Linguistics.
3. The writers
The result of this research can be used by the writers to create their news
better and to get higher quality of readability.
4. The readers
The result of this research will stimulate the readers in taking part in the
issue and expressing their opinion.
G. Research Methodology
The research moves on with a qualitative research that employs on a
descriptive comparative method. In qualitative research, the data were stated in
form of words or sentences. Moleong describes qualitative research is a type of
research which does not include any calculation or enumeration since the data
contained are words (2001: 2). Since the research employed descriptive method,
the researcher observed the data and drew the conclusion based on the data.
The data of this research were in the forms of lexico-grammar, the
cohesion system, and the genre toward identifying the tenor of the news texts.
Besides, this research was a comparative study that has aimed to know the
similarities and dissimilarities in both of texts. The source of data of this research
was taken from The Jakarta Post in March 30th, 2010 and London Evening
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H. Thesis Organization
The research systematically is organized into five chapters. They are as
follows:
Chapter I consists of Introduction. In this chapter the research introduces
research background, problem statements, research limitation, research objectives,
Research significance, research benefits, research methodology and thesis
organization.
Chapter II consists of Literature Review. It deals with mass media, news
text, the Jakarta Post and London Evening Standard profile, Smoking ban issue
and Systemic Functional Linguistics.
Chapter III consists of Research Methodology. It covers types of research,
data and source of data, sample and sampling technique, research procedure,
technique of collecting data and technique of analyzing data.
Chapter IV consists of Data Analysis. It deals with data description, data
interpretation and discussion.
Chapter V consists of Conclusion and Recommendation. In this chapter, the
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9
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Mass Media
1. Newspaper
Generally, newspaper is one kind of mass media that has a wide variety of
material consumed by the largest people in the world to follow what exactly
happening with this real world. Emery mentions that newspaper belongs to the
oldest mass media carrying the messages in written form (1967: 8). Practical,
cheap and easy functions are the reasons people use it. It is practical because of
the variety which contains the editorial opinions, criticisms, persuasions,
entertainment features, news and forecast, plays and restaurants, etc. As the
second reason, newspaper is cheap because people need some money to get this,
and the last one it is easy because any places provide newspaper, for instance
book shops, book stores, even newspaper subscriptions. People usually choose the
simplest way to read newspaper that is just opening the computer, connecting to
the internet and then looking up to the newspaper online.
2. Internet
Everything can be found on the internet. Therefore it symbolizes the
decentralization, knowledge, information and the data extremely which is also
called as the primary needs. The advanced era has brought human being into
enlarged needs, not only in primary but also in secondary even tertiary needs
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Interconnected networking or internet means an association of thousand of
computer’s users that communicate with each other through the network (Black,
1999: 1). It is as the communication medium between one and other people or
involved in the large community. Internet provides a lot of kinds of social
networks which are able to communicate with people in many countries in the
world. Internet as the knowledge means that people can dig up millions of the
knowledge in a lot of sciences starting from the traditional or simple knowledge to
the modern one which is used to fulfill the human needs.
Internet as the information and the entertainment gets more excited
attention. Internet provides many local, national and international newspapers that
give the information from many countries. Newspaper on the internet or online
newspaper has a similar form with printed newspaper, but we do not get a
problem in searching the previous news. We can get the news which was
published on yesterday or a week ago even years ago by clicking and choosing the
date what we want in ‘search’ column. On the other side, internet as the
entertainment purposes to entertain people who may use to cut the work for a
while or just look for the fun such as the movie, music, game, etc that easily to
access.
3. The Jakarta Post
The Jakarta Post is the largest daily newspaper in English language
published in Indonesia. The newspaper was launched on April, 25 1983 owned by
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The Jakarta Post is a small but influential newspaper oriented towards
local English-speaking emigrant and the diplomatic community. In many ways, it
acts as an unofficial mouthpiece of the Indonesian government into the
international community. It seems like what Bill Tarrant says that the Jakarta post
becomes a prestigious independent broadsheet with extensive national and
international influence (Tarrant, 2008: 104).
The latest years, we can find the Jakarta Post newspaper on the internet by
clicking www.thejakartapost.com. Furthermore, the online newspaper has similar
content with the printed one such as headlines, national, archipelago, opinion,
reader’s forum, world, country profile, business, reportage, city, sports, features,
entertainment guide, and the last is people column. The news usually belongs to
the headline column completed with picture in color like the general newspapers.
4. London Evening Standard
The newspaper begins the name The Standard in morning paper from
June, 29 1857 which under ownership by James Johnstone and continued to
evening paper in two years later and then it is called Evening Standard newspaper.
This newspaper is used to report the war event, such as American Civil War,
Austro-Prussian War or Franco-Prussian War. Evening Standard becomes the
annual sponsored of Evening Standard Award since the 1950s, awarded the
annual and the Evening Standard British Film Award since the 1970s.
London Evening Standard is a free local daily newspaper in tabloid format
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certainly published in evening and it emphasized city of London finance, but
starting On October 12, 2009 the newspaper became a free newspaper.
It covers a mix among local, national and international news, and it also
provides column of business, financial reporting, and has a tradition of extensive
arts coverage. Moreover, London Standard Evening can be read on the internet. It
has the same content with the printed ones that can be accessed through
www.standard.co.uk. It continues with www.thisislondon.co.uk/standard/ as of
October 2009. The online newspaper also has various pages. They are home,
news, business, money, comment, sport, video, entertainment, life & style, travel,
showbiz, offers and games, and each of those pages has many columns, for
instance the news has a politics, pictures, news itself, Londoner’s diary, travel
news, news archive, etc completed with the picture, sponsor and advertisement.
5. The Smoking Ban
A smoking ban is a controversial subject. Those who do not smoke, and
have never smoked, often think that there is no reason to employ a public smoking
ban. Smokers, however, think that it is a personal right to be able to smoke in
public, and the smoking ban issue is important and personal for them. Moreover,
this might seem like a new issue. The disagreement surrounding a motion to ban
smoking in public places has been around for a while.
The first known smoking ban occurred in 1575 and was given by Mexican
religious council. The council banned who ever use of tobacco in any church in
Mexico and Spanish colonies in the Caribbean. The Pope also held ban smoking
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announced “Anyone who was caught smoking or chewing tobacco near a church
was excommunicated”.
It was not until the twentieth century that the health problems associated
with tobacco use came to light in the public eye. That was the time when
businesses provided smokers with their own separate locations, so they could
smoke without exposing the rest of the customers to the dangers and annoyance of
smoke.
In 1990s, California became the first state to issue a smoking ban, and this
was in restaurants. Since that time, many cities have taken up the drive to ban
cigarette smoking in public locations, particularly restaurants. In fact, recent
estimates show that as many as thirty-four states have cities that have some sort of
ban smoking laws.
B. Systemic Functional Linguistics
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a functionally based theory
which examines the functions that language has evolved to serve in society such
as a view involves the examination of real language events to understand the
purposes language serves in a variety of context, and to understand the way
language itself functions (Harrison, 2004: 1).
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is originally introduced by M. A. K
Halliday in 1960’s. Halliday considers that function and semantic are basis of
human language and communicative activity. A key concept in Halliday’s
approach is the “context of situation” which takes the language as the use. Bloor
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and the form of the language that they use in discourse is influenced by the
complex aspects of those situations (2004: 4). The situation affects the form of
written English, which is not only the choice of word but also the grammar that is
used. The situation can also have such a confining effect on language that society
often develops clear conventions of use (like those associated with business
meetings or formal greetings) which have to be learned before newcomers to the
circumstances can behave appropriately. The context in which language is used
frequently leads over time to the development of specific socially recognized
forms that is known as genres and style or register.
C. Text and Context
Text is one of the main elements that play a significant role in
communication. People speak a text, read a text, listen to a text, write a text, and
even translate a text. A text is also defined as unit of language in use to utter the
meaning contextually. A context of the text has a big role to know the meaning of
the text. Widdowson mentions that people may know what the language means
but still not understand what is meant by its use in certain text. It cannot be
separated for both contexts, namely context of situation and culture (2006: 4).
Santosa mentions that context of situation refers to the social process of an
event or occurrence belongs to the participant, time and place, etc that supports
the situation while the context of culture means the value and norm which become
the background of that occurrence (2003: 15-16). In linguistics, there are three
aspects of context in any situation that have linguistic consequences: field, mode
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D. Register
A register is a language variety which is based on the use. It is different
from dialect which is also a language variety based on the user (Santosa, 2003: 47).
A register is related to social context. The register of schools in Indonesia, for
instance, is different from that of schools in Australia.
There are three dimensions of variation which are characterized by register.
First is what is being called field that refers to what is going on in a social process,
second one refers to the people involved in the communication and the relationship
between them that is called tenor and the third is mode which considers how the
language functions in the interaction, whether it is written or spoken.
Field talks about what is happening or what the language is being used to
talk about. Field is the contextual projection of experiential meaning which
describes the question when, where, how and why the event is going on and so on.
In a text, a field can be realized by text structure, cohesion, transitivity, clause
system, group system, and system of lexis.
Mode concerns to the role language which are playing in an interaction.
Mode is a projection of the textual meaning which is divided into channel and
medium. Channel refers to the medium used to express the language whether it is
written, spoken or both while Medium refers to the medium used to express the
language whether it is one way or two way oral communication: audio,
audio-visual, or written communication.
Tenor has to do with who are taking part in the transaction as well as the
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interpersonal meaning, in general tenor concerns to semiotics of relationship that
has three dimensions, they are status, contact and affect.
E. Tenor as the Realization of Interpersonal Meaning
Tenor generally is defined as the social role relationship played by the
participants. The role itself has a link between language and context and it is tight
with the situation that will have the impact on how we use language. For instance,
we will not talk to the greengrocer the same way you talk to your mother (Eggins,
1994: 63). Bloor mentions, language here is used by the people to participate in
communicative acts with other people, to take on role and to express and
understand feelings, attitude and judgment (2004: 11).
Tenor refers to whole aspects of the participants who play the role in the
social process. The role itself covers the participants’ characteristics and their
social status including what kind of the social role played by those participants
and the status relationship whether it is a permanent and temporary. It also refers
to the language in use to express the relationship between the role and social
status (Santosa, 2003: 50-51).
Tenor as the realization of interpersonal meaning refers to the negotiation
of social relationship among participants. It mediates the semiotics of relationship
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Status Equal Unequal
Tenor Contact Involved Distant
Affect Marked Positive Negative
(Martin, 1992: 526)
1. Status
Status in tenor mainly means the social status or the role relationship of
the participants. Tenor in analysis presents what social status is like and social
role which is played by the participants in a text (Santosa, 2003: 51). Status here
is divided into two aspects: equal and unequal which both refer to a symbolic
relationship between the positions of the participants in the social process. It is
called an equal status when the participants show the democratic or horizontal
relationship such as among students or friends. On the other hand, it is called
unequal when a participant shows the different position or vertical relationship
such as between a doctor and a patient or between a director and a worker.
2. Contact
Contact refers to the language in use. It evaluates the language in the text
that is used to measure the text whether it is familiar or not, whether the
participant in the text is much involved or distant to know how far the language is
understood. Furthermore, contact is also related to the readability of text to
measure the level of the difficulties whether it is complex, easy or easiest to be
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3. Affect
Affect is different from status and contact. Affect in an analysis is more
related to the evaluation among the participants who are involved in the text.
Poynton in Martin classifies affect into two types: positive and negative
evaluation (Martin, 1992: 533). Affect is called positive when the participants
support, show agreement to the participant’s opinion or they respect and praise
between one and another participant. However, affect is called negative when the
participants do criticize, attack or mock, and disagree toward the participant’s
opinion (Santosa, 2003: 51).
F. Lexicogrammar
1. Clause System
Clause is a grammatical unit that consists of one or more groups, and it is
made up of identifiable constituents, each of which has its own structure. There
are two kinds of clause: minor and major clauses. Minor and major clauses have
the same position in telling the rhetoric meaning in the text. Minor clause is a
clause without process that has incomplete functional constituents but the clause
pragmatically has rhetoric function as a major clause.
On the other hand, major clause is a clause with a process that consists of
two types: simplex and complex clause. The clause is called simplex since it has a
single process while another clause is called complex since it has two or more
processes. Complex clause has two relations: interdependency and
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a. Interdependency Relation
1. Paratactic (1, β, γ…)
It is a parallel or similar relation. The two clauses are independent each
other or they can stand by themselves. It is signed by the external conjunction
and, but, or, so (that), both…and, not only…but also, and this relation is also
signed by thedirect speech, etc.
Table 2.1 External Conjunctions (but)
(7ab) People working in the buildings can still smoke
but they will have to smoke outside the buildings.
1 ”2
(Taken from the data analysis text 1)
Table 2.2 External Conjunctions (and)
(7cd) should we follow in the footsteps of New York
and ban smoking in all public building
1 +2
(Taken from the data analysis text 2)
2. Hypotactic (α, , …)
It is a super-ordinate and sub-ordinate relation. It means one clause can
stand by itself and the other cannot stand by itself or one/more clauses are
dependent to the main clause. It can be signed by external conjunction after,
before, as, when, if, although, since, while, for, and hypotactic relation can be
signed by the indirect speech, etc.
Table 2.3 hypotactic relation
(5) The city will extend the smoking ban in public places and buildings
after finding
α X
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b.Logico-Semantic Relation
Logico-semantic relation refers to the expansion relation that is through
the super-ordinate/sub-ordinate semantic expansion, it is a modification. It can be
expanded by hypotactic or paratactic relation.
1. Expansion
a. Elaboration (=)
It expresses the same thing with different wording. Elaboration occurs when
one clause elaborates meaning with another clause by further specifying or
describing it.
Table 2.4 Elaboration
(8) Following research which shows
α =
(Taken from the data analysis text 2)
b.Extension (+)
It means one clause extends the meaning of another by adding something
new to it, giving an exception/replacement, and offering an alternative or in
other word what is added may be an addition, or an alternation, or an
opposition.
Table 2.5 Extension
(7) Should we follow in the footsteps of New York
and ban smoking in all public buildings
1 +2
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c. Enhancement (x)
It means one clause enhances the meaning of another by qualifying it with
some circumstantial features on time, place, cause, condition, reason,
purpose or concession.
Table 2.6 Enhancement
(5) The city will extend the smoking ban in public places and buildings
after finding
α X
(Taken from the data analysis text 1)
2. Projection
It is a logico-semantic relation of clause complex that one clause projects
the others in verbal and idea, like in reported speech: direct and indirect speech.
a. Locution
It is the verbal projection that verbal and verbal behaviors are signed by
verb: say, tell, ask, claim, suggest, etc and locution is symbolized by (“).
Table 2.7 Locution
(17) The BPLHD [he] said would make an assessment
1 ”2
(Taken from the data analysis text 1)
b.Idea
It is the mental projection in cognition and perception signed by verb:
understand, realize, see and idea is symbolized by (‘).
Table 2.8 Idea
The Jakarta Environment Management Board (BPLHD) [head of law enforcement [Ridwan Panjaitan]] said
his office would revise the 2005 gubernatorial decree
α ‘
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1) MOOD System and Structure
Mood system expresses interpersonal meaning realized by four
classifications: giving goods & service that is signed by indicative, declarative
(Ex: here’s the book), giving information that is signed by indicative, declarative
(Ex: this is the book), demanding goods & service that is signed by imperative
phrase (Ex: find the book), and the last one is demanding information that is
signed by interrogative phrase (Ex: is this the book?). Mood system can be seen
in the following figure:
Figure 2.2 Mood System
Indicative Declarative (S^F)
(S&F) Interrogative (F^S) Polar
Mood system (F^S)
Imperative (P) Wh
(Wh^F^S)
(Adapted from Santosa, 2003: 109)
Mood structure realizes the interpersonal meaning. It refers to the
participant interaction classified in two aspects: giving and demanding. It also
shows a semantic meaning of clause whether it is proposition or proposal.
Proposition is used to exchange the information while proposal enables the
exchange of good and service.
Table 2.9 Mood Structure
Good & service Information
Giving
Demanding
Here’s the book
Find the book
This is the book
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Proposal Proposition
(Ibid: 108)
2) Polarity and Modality System
a. Polarity System
Polarity, according to Halliday, is the choice between positive and
negative. It is particularly expressed in the Finite element, for Finite verbal
operator has two forms: positive and negative. The positive form is like in is, was,
has, can, etc while the negative one is the positive form added by „not‟, such is
not, was not, has not, cannot. The positive polarity is considered as unmarked
theme and the negative one is marked theme.
For example (Taken from the data analysis):
1. 93 percent of the respondents were aware of the regulations (positive polarity).
2. I don’tlike being surrounded by smoke (negative polarity).
b. Modality System
Halliday mentions that modality system is defined as the speaker’s
judgment of the probabilities or the obligation, involved what he/she is saying
(1985: 86). It relates to the modality clause such as must, will, etc. Modality
system is used to know whether the clause belongs to the preposition meaning or
proposal meaning (Santosa, 2003: 112). Modality stands in the middle of the
positive and negative polarity clauses and generally modality is divided into three
degrees; they are high (must), medium (will) and low (may).
Modality consists of two types: modalization and modulation.
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and usuality while modulation expresses the proposal meaning which consists of
two types, obligation and inclination.
Figure 2.3 Modality System
(Adapted from Halliday, 1985: 335)
Besides, modalization and modulation can be signed by clauses or verb
groups, for instance I think she is a good girl. The word think shows low
probability. Modality usually can be seen from modal adjunct like probably,
possibly, maybe, generally, etc, for example generally, the crisis will end when
there is a political agreement. The word generally shows medium usuality of
modalization (Santosa, 2003: 113-114).
3) Theme System
Halliday in Eggins states that theme is the element which serves as “the
starting-point for the message: it is what the clause is going to be about”. It means
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familiar from the context. Theme is the element which comes first in the clause
(1994: 274). Continuously, there are three types of theme: Topical theme,
Interpersonal theme and Textual theme.
a. Topical Theme
Topical theme can be assigned from the first position in a clause. The main
point to remember of this theme is that every clause must contain one and only
one topical theme, or easy definition. We can stop finding the theme if you has
already found the Topical Theme. It consists of two types such as Unmarked
and Marked Topical Theme.
Unmarked Topical signed as the usual Subject, like mother, my uncle, etc
while Marked Topical is other than Subject, for instance it can be an Object,
Adjunct (name of place), predicator, complement at the beginning of clause,
etc.
For example (taken from the data analysis text 2):
Table 2.10 Unmarked Topical Theme
The Mory survey [commissioned…London] Also showed
Unmarked topical theme
Table 2.11 Marked Topical Theme
what level of restriction if any They Want
Marked top. theme Rheme
b.Interpersonal Theme
Interpersonal theme is assigned to occur in the beginning of a clause. The
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structure and the Modal Adjunct: Mood, Polarity, Vocative and Comment
(Eggins, 1994: 276).
1. Unfused Finite in Interrogative structure (do)
Table 2.12 Unfused Finite in Interrogative structure
Do you Give Blood?
Interpersonal Topical
(Ibid: 278)
2. Mood Adjunct (maybe, I think, just)
Table 2.13 Mood Adjunct
Maybe Stephen Could Help
Interpersonal Topical
(Ibid: 279)
3. Polarity Adjunct (yes / no)
Table 2.14 Polarity Adjunct
Yes / no
Interpersonal
This adjunct is analyzed as the interpersonal theme when it occurs in cases
yes/no act interpersonally or as the polarity adjunct itself. Note that polarity
adjunct is accompanied by the ellipsis position, so it will not be a following by
topical theme (ibid: 280).
4. Vocative Adjunct
Table 2.15 Vocative Adjunct
Simon, Isn’t That Where they put the
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It is categorized as the Interpersonal theme although it is not constituent of the
MOOD element. It occurs before the first topical theme and it consists of one
or more than one adjunct in a clause (ibid: 279).
5. Comment Adjunct (fortunately, unfortunately)
Table 2.16 Comment Adjunct
Fortunately, The bomb Didn’t Explode
Interpersonal Topical
This adjunct can be identified from the adverbial expressions of attitude where
the attitude relates to the entire clauses. It is classified into the Interpersonal
Theme when a comment adjunct occurs before the first topical Theme (ibid:
280).
c. Textual Theme
It refers to the cohesive work in connecting between clause and the
context. Textual theme has two types: Continuity Adjunct and Conjunctive
Adjunct (Eggins, 1994: 281).
1. Continuity Adjunct (well, umm, err, oh, no…)
It is usually used in spoken dialogue to indicate that speaker’s contribution is
somehow continuous with a previous speaker has said in an earlier turn. Yea/
no can be included this adjunct when it is as the first item in a clause.
Table 2.17 Continuity Adjunct
No, You wouldn’t
Textual Topical
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2. Conjunctive Adjunct (and, then, after, although, but, however, etc)
It occurs before the first topical theme in a clause. The conjunctives (and, but)
which are used to link clauses together within a sentence will necessary occur
in the first position in the clause whereas a conjunctive which links sentences
to other sentences (however) may occur in other positions.
Table 2.18 Conjunctive Adjunct
And He Proposes marriage Textual Topical
(ibid: 282)
4) Group System
a. Nominal Group
Basically, nominal is made up of single, a noun. Furthermore the
nominal group actually comes from the expansion of the word itself, for
instance, a noun home which only consists of a head because it stands
alone without any modification or called modifier. On the other hand, the
nominal group appears more complicated, consisting of head and the
modifier, for example white house, white is called pre-modifier since it
comes before the head and house is as the head (Bloor, 2004: 138).
There are several kinds of modifier that can be realized by word
classes, most frequently by deictic (D), numerals (Num), epithet (E),
classifier (C), thing (T), and qualifier (Q) (Santosa, 2003: 100).
1. Thing
It is the main item of this nominal group or it is a nominalization
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pronoun, infinitive phrase, and gerund or noun clause (Santosa, 2003:
102).
(13a) The survey said T
(Taken from the data analysis text 1)
2. Deictic
Deictic in a nominal group functions as the determiner. It is
realized with this, that, these, those, and also by the article the which is
called specific deictic. Meanwhile, non-specific deictic is the indefinite
article a/an, each, every, neither, no, either, all, some, etc (Bloor, 2004:
140). Besides, Santosa mentions that deictic is also realized into
possessive items such as his, their, our, John‟s, my sisters‟, etc (2003:
101). For example:
(5a) The city will extend D
(6b) his office would revise the 2005 gubernatorial decree. D
(18) A building will then be given one of four ratings [ poor, satisfactory, D
good and very good].
(Taken from the data analysis text 1)
3. Numerative
Numerative is a pre-modifier item that is realized by numbers or
numerals like 1, 2, 1st 2nd, or by such expressions as many, several, a lot
of, etc. (ibid: 140-141)
(13c) and 60 percent of them stated Num
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4. Epithet
Epithet is a pre-modifier item that describes the quality of thing in
terms of its size, shape, color or condition. In English, epithet can be
realized into adjective, present participle, and past participle (Santosa,
2003: 101).
(13e) to smoke in public closed areas E T
(Taken from the data analysis text 1)
5. Classifier
It is a pre-modifier item that classifies thing based on the types or
kinds. Classifier can be realized by noun, adjective, and gerund.
(8d) that the non-smoking areas were contaminated by smoking rooms
C T
(Taken from the data analysis text 1)
6. Qualifier
Qualifier functions in the nominal group as the post-modifier that
adds information about the thing. It can be realized by adjective clause,
present participle phrase, past participle phrase, infinitive phrase, adjective
phrase, prepositional phrase and ordinal/cardinal phrase (Santosa, 2003:
103).
(5c) … smoke [[infiltrating non-smoking area]]
Q
(Taken from the data analysis text 1)
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Mainly, it is a verb group that has a verb as the main point of the
group itself. In transitivity, verbal group expresses the event concept such
as what is going on, happening, saying, doing, sensing, acting, etc.
In English, based on the form, this verbal group consists of finite
and non-finite, the secondary tenses and based on the voice it has active
and passive. The finite involves the tenses (past, present, future) and
modal (can, must, should, etc) components while the non-finite does not.
The active verb shows agent as subject while passive verb shows goal of
process, phenomenon, value or verbiage as subject in passive clause
(Santosa, 2003:104).
For example:
(15) The survey follows the introduction of smoking bans F / P
(Taken from the data analysis text 2)
The verbal group also has logical structure meaning as it realizes
the system of tenses, consisting of primary (α) or modal and secondary
tense ( , , etc), or event. Those tenses have three signs, they are (-) for
past, (о) for present, and (+) for future.
(8b) Smoking free regulation would be imposed on all spaces in buildings
αmod pass event
(Taken from the data analysis text 1)
5) Lexis System
Lexis is a system which realizes the ideational, interpersonal and
textual meaning of the verbal social process or text. Lexis in textual
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technicality and abstraction. However lexis in interpersonal meaning
explains the descriptive and attitudinal lexis (Santosa, 2003: 12).
a. Congruent and Incongruent Lexis
Congruent is a process which is realized by a direct process
taken from the physical reality change to symbolical reality. It for
example noun is symbolized by nominal group, process/activity is
symbolized by verbal group, circumstance is symbolized by adverbia
groupl, etc.
For example:
Arinda got an accident yesterday
Table 2.19 Congruent Lexis
Physical reality
Arinda, an accident (noun)
Got (process)
Yesterday (cir.time)
Symbolical reality
Nominal group
Verbal group
Adverbial group
Based on the example above, we can see those words are called
congruent since physical reality match to the symbolical reality, for
instance the words Arinda, an accident are in the physical reality
called noun and then it is still functioned as nominal group in the
symbolical reaality, the word got is in the physical reality called
process and it is called verbal group in the symbolical reality, and the
last is the word yesterday is in the physical reality called circumstance
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Meanwhile, incongruent is a process in which symbol has
indirect process with the reality. It is realized by changing a group into
other grammatical system. It is called grammatical metaphor that
consists of two types: nominalization and abstraction. Abstraction and
nominalization is a process of changing verb into noun. This
nominalization is used for neutralizing some idea and making brief
defiinition so that it is effective in scientific written text. Moreover,
there is another type which is made by means of nominalization called
technicality. Technicality is a nominalization or abstraction of process
that produces the specific terms of certain field (ibid: 123-124).
For example:
The factor of cold lava flood in Boyolali was the explosion of Merapi
Mountain on October, 30th.
Table 2.20 Incongruent Lexis
Physical reality
factor (logical relation )
cold lava flood (process)
explosion (process)
Symbolical reality
noun
noun
noun
The words factor, cold lava flood and explosion are classified into
incongruent in which the symbol has indirect relation with the physical
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b. Descriptive and Attitudinal Lexis
Descriptive lexis is a lexis that describes the experiential reality
without any opinion or implicit meaning while attitudinal lexis tells
about the experiential reality that has any implicit meaning, opinion,
sense and attitude of the writer toward the reality. Moreover,
attitudinal lexis shows the interpersonal meaning of words/text (ibid:
126).
For example:
1. The livestock sector in Nigeria is characterized by low productivity
(descriptive lexis)
2. If there is any specimen lower than a fornicating preacher, it must
be a shady scientist (attitudinal lexis)
(Adapted from Santosa, 2003: 127)
In number 1, the words livestock, sector and low show descriptive lexis
since those words describe the experiential reality without any opinion
from the writer whereas the words specimen, fornicating and shady in
number 2 show the attitudinal lexis because those words contain certain
ideology opinion that can be used to attack the other writer. The
descriptive lexis is appropriate to use on academic text that describes the
phenomena objectively, but attitudinal lexis is appropriate for popular
essay such as politic, economic, and social field essay, etc (ibid: 127).
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Metaphor is related to the meaning as a part of variation expression
that describes how the meaning is expressed but it does not describe how
the word is used. Halliday divides metaphor into two types: ideational and
interpersonal metaphor (1994: 341). Ideational metaphor occurs when
non-living things do activities like what living things do; for example, the
city will extend the smoking ban in public places (taken from the data
analysis text 1). Interpersonal metaphor turns on two conditions: mood and
modality metaphors. Mood metaphor expresses the function of speech
such as statement, question, offer and command, for example, I‟ll shoot
the pianist while modality metaphor happens when the speaker’s opinion
concerns to the probability, for instance using the word ‘I think‟, I think, it
is going to rain (ibid: 363).
G. COHESION
Cohesion in a text tells about a relationship between first paragraph and
the next one that has the correlation meaning. In addition, cohesion also shows the
identification of a relationship between the previous paragraph and the next
paragraph whether it is recognized as the cohesion or not (Widdowson, 2006: 48),
or simply, cohesion is used to link the parts of a text together. The important thing
in the course of cohesion is the writer can establish in the reader’s mind toward
the understanding previous context to the next/new context.
There are two types of cohesion: Grammatical and lexical cohesion.
Grammatical cohesion is a unit of form (symbol/textual) and meaning
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connection in internal clauses or often called ‘agreement’ between subject and the
finite or verb and the external clauses. Martin divides internal clause into 4 types,
they are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction (Martin, 1992: 384).
First, reference generally is a pronominalthat isused to refer thing (it, she,
he, her, his, they, etc) or idea (this, that, etc). Eggins states that reference is related
to how the writer or speaker introduces participants and then keeps track of them
once they are in the text (1994: 95). For example, Andi and Ali are brothers, they
always together. The words Andi and Ali refer to thing with the word they, so it is
called reference relation.
Second, substitution is a replacement of the constituent element in a clause
into grammatical form. Grammatically, those constituent is predicator and the
compliments. This substitution is used to have effectiveness in avoiding repetition
word, for example: Father gives money to Ika, so do I. the word so do is one of
substitution in English.
Third, Ellipsis is used in an effective need in language. It can be done by
omitting a little part or whole constituent element of a sentence. The spoken
language like conversation often uses this cohesion, for example:
Andara : “Hi, Ana. How are you today?”
Ana : “Fine”
Andara : “Your shirt is nice?”
Ana : “Thanks”
Actually the words fine and thanks are derivied from I‟m fine and thank you.
However they use the simple answer or it is called ellipsis cohesion. The word
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yes/no question or WH question while the word thanks is called nominal ellipsis
that is an ellipsis within nominal group.
Fourth, conjunction is as we know a connector idea among clauses in
grammatical cohesion. This function consists of two conjunctions: internal and
external conjunction. Internal conjunction connects the idea of two simplex
clauses or two ideas in a paragraph while external conjunction which connects
two ideas in complex clauses.
Meanwhile, lexical cohesion describes the lexical connection on a text that
has a taxonomic or non-taxonomic relation. Taxonomic relation consists of
super-ordinate and composition relation and non-taxonomic has nuclear relation and
expectancy activity (Santosa, 2003: 66).
Super-ordinate relation is a lexical relation as the result of a phenomena
both of natural and social or scientific. Super-ordinate relation has two types:
inclusion and taxonomic relation. Inclusion relation consists of hyponym and
co-hyponym and similarity types belonged to antonym, repetition and synonym. On
the other hand, taxonomic relation has composition in part-whole cohesive
relation, for example garden-plants.
Nuclear relation is a cohesion relation that expands between the nuclear
and the peripheral in clause degrees, verbal and noun group. The functions are to
add the idea (extension), for example: win-race, try-to win, large-elephant, and the
second is to modify the idea (enhancement), for example run-track, run-quickly,
boat-in the water. The next type of non-taxonomic relation is an expectancy
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event which is signed by the chronological of time (take a bath - have breakfast -
go to school - study - go home) and logical/consequential relation (getting ill - see
doctor - get medicine - heal).
H. Text Structure
Martin (1992: 505) says that text structure refers to “schematic structure”.
It means text structure is defined as staged, goal-oriented social process realized
through register. Santosa also mentions that text structure is a unity of form and
meaning of text form and its meaning represents one organism structure of
opening, body and closing (2003: 60).
Text structure implies genre. The staging of text structure is the unity part
of the text and then we should view the general tendency of the staging structure
and social function of the text to interpret a text in certain genre. In the staging of
text, there may have more than one social function, but the other social function is
still more general function of the text. Thus, a text only has one social function
and one genre (Ibid: 62).
Wiratno (2003: 4) says a text has a text structure. Generally text structure
consists of opening, body and closing, but it does not always run in that ways or it
can be mentioned that the different text also has different text structure. A
brochure text does not have an opening or preface and a letter does not have
conclusion although it has a closing text.
I. Genre
Genre is generally defined as a social process, realized from the cultural
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center medium in verbal field such as listening to the radio, sharing, reading
newspaper, etc and non-verbal field like in an economic, sport or politic field
(Santosa, 2010: 70).
Swales in Santosa (2003: 26) defines genre as a class or type that has
certain communication purpose. Therefore, there are variations of those purposes
in society and it also means they have many kinds of genre, like in the discourse
community; journalist has news, advertisement, reader’s forum, editorial, etc.
In the latest century, genre has brought wide definition in linguistics study,
belongs to the SFL. Linguists still have different opinion about this definition, but
it provides the same concept that genre consists of two types: macro and micro
genre. Macro genre takes place in the super-ordinate culture while genre is in the
sub-ordinate culture, like in English Specific Purposes called micro genre. Genre
considers to change if it is on the different culture, and time and purpose will do
change. This purpose and the stage also will confine the use of language belonged
to the text structure (Santosa, 2010: 76).
Micro genre consists of two types based on the social function: factual
genre and story genre (Martin, 1992: 562). Factual genre is taken from the daily
activity, academic, journalistic, etc which is divided into eight genres: recount,
report, procedure, explanation, description, exposition, exploration, and
discussion genre. On the other hand, story genre is taken from story social
process purposed to entertain or somehow it is used to tease social phenomena. In
fact, this genre is unrelated with literature such as in western (Santosa, 2010: 79).
