xiii ABSTRACT
TJIA, CHRISTOPHER. Liberty and Optimism Presented through the Presupposed Meaning of the Characters’ Utterances in Dustin Lance Black’s Film Milk. Yogyakarta: English Letters Department, Faculty of Letters, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2016.
Presupposition is something that the speaker assumes to be true before making an utterance. Presupposition as one of the specific concepts in pragmatic approach is used as a means to convey the meaning that is more communicated than what is said. In this case, an underlying belief known as ideology can also be implied through a presupposition. This study analyzes the ideologies promoted by Harvey Milk and his allies in Dustin Lance Black’s film script entitled Milk.
There are two problems formulated in this study. The first problem concerns on the presupposed meaning that is presented through the characters’ utterances in the film script entitled Milk. The second problem concerns on how the ideologies are presented through the presupposed meaning of the characters’ utterances in the film script entitled Milk.
This study employed an empirical method with the data taken from a film script. The data collection was done using a purposive sampling method which means utterances that either do not contain presupposed meaning or contain presupposed meaning which does not reveal the ideology would be discharged. For the analysis, this study employed a pragmatic approach with presupposition as the specific concept to presuppose certain meaning behind the characters’ utterances. A critical discourse analysis was enacted to examine the implied meaning beyond the presupposed meaning. In this case, to reveal the ideology carried within the presupposed meaning.
xiv ABSTRAK
TJIA, CHRISTOPHER. Liberty and Optimism Presented through the Presupposed Meaning of the Characters’ Utterances in Dustin Lance Black’s Film Milk. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2016.
Praanggapan adalah sesuatu yang dianggap sebagai benar sebelum seseorang mengungkapkan tuturannya. Praanggapan, salah satu konsep spesifik di dalam pendekatan pragmatik, digunakan sebagai salah satu cara menyampaikan arti yang melebihi dari apa yang disampaikan seseorang. Di kasus ini, sebuah pemikiran yang mendasar yaitu ideologi dapat diimplikasikan melalui praanggapan. Studi ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis ideologi-ideologi yang dipromosikan oleh Harvey Milk dan persekutuannya di dalam film Dustin Lance Black yang berjudul Milk.
Terdapat dua masalah yang dirumuskan di dalam studi ini. Masalah pertama membahas arti yang dianggap dari tuturan karakter-karakter di dalam film bejrudul Milk. Masalah kedua membahas bagaimana ideologi tertentu ditunjukkan melalui arti yang dianggap dari tuturan karakter-karakter di dalam film bejrudul Milk.
Studi ini menggunakan metode empiris dengan mengambil data-data dari transkrip film. Pengumpulan data tersebut menggunakan teknik purposive sampling yang berarti bahwa tuturan yang tidak mengandung arti yang dianggap atau mengandung arti yang dapat dianggap namun tidak menujukkan ideologi-ideologi tertentu tidak akan digunakan untuk analisis studi ini. Untuk tahap analisis, studi ini menggunakan pendekatan pragmatik dengan praanggapan sebagai konsep spesifik untuk menganggap arti tertentu di balik tuturan karakter di film berjudul Milk. Analisis wacana krisis pun digunakan untuk meneliti arti yang diimplikasikan melalui arti yang dianggap. Di kasus ini, untuk menunjukkan ideologi-ideologi yang dibawa bersama dengan arti yang dianggap.
LIBERTY AND OPTIMISM PRESENTED THROUGH THE
PRESUPPOSED MEANING OF
THE CHARACTERS’
UTTERANCES IN DUSTIN LANCE BLACK’S FILM
MILK
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
CHRISTOPHER TJIA Student Number: 124214005
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
ii
LIBERTY AND OPTIMISM PRESENTED THROUGH THE
PRESUPPOSED MEANING OF THE
CHARACTERS’
UTTERANCES IN
DUSTIN LANCE BLACK’S FILM
MILK
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
CHRISTOPHER TJIA Student Number: 124214005
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
viii
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is intriguing to say that Harvey Milk’s proliferation of hope has reinforced me to believe for a betterment, which is actualized through the completion of my thesis. Thus, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. B. Ria Lestari, M.Sc. for her guidance and my co-advisor, Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. for the alternatives which lead to the betterment of my thesis. I am also indebted to Simon Arsa Manggala, S.S., M.Hum. for his enlightening ideas.
The completion of my study would not be viable without the support from my parents, my brother Octavion Tjia, my sister Natalie Christy Tjia, and my friends, especially Kak Rany, Mbak Dian, Sandra Sexy Montok, Clementyas, Dita Malfoy, Venny Vendul, Angel Binti, Renie Cantik, Mbak Shelma, Nimas Sekar, Desty, Dani, Munthe, Icha, and Pipin. My enormous love is also addressed to my best friend Julyan “Mas Jul” Adhitama as the best supporting system with lots of affection, constant fight, and nurturing advice to share. With that being said, I am utterly grateful and look forward to cherishing them all.
Last but not least, I can never thank EDS Sanata Dharma enough for the warmth of unconditional acceptance and the provision of hardwork, resillience, and commitment which instills a self-worth in myself. Thus, a huge shoutout is addressed to Kak Sekartiyasa, Kak Caca, Kak Didy, “The Philosopher” Tyas
Kirana, “The Lovable” Ivonne Kezia, Rara, Festy, Rea, Moore, Grace, and the other members of this family. I wish the best for this family by choice.
x
A.Presupposed Meaning in the Characters’ Utterances ...31
1. Pressupposed Meaning in Existential Presupposition ...32
2. Pressupposed Meaning in Factive Presupposition ...39
3. Pressupposed Meaning in Lexical Presupposition ...42
4. Pressupposed Meaning in Non-Factive Presupposition ...49
5. Pressupposed Meaning in Counter-Factual Presupposition ...51
6. Pressupposed Meaning in Structural Presupposition ...54
B. Ideologies in the Characters’ Utterances ...58
1. Liberty ...59
xi
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ...76
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...81
APPENDICES ...83
Appendix 1: Data for Existential Presupposition ...83
Appendix 2: Data for Factive Presupposition ...86
Appendix 3: Data for Lexical Presupposition ...87
Appendix 4: Data for Non-Factive Presupposition ...90
Appendix 5: Data for Counterfactual Presupposition ...91
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Utterances with Existential Presupposition...32
Table 2. Utterances with Factive Presupposition ...40
Table 3. Utterances with Lexical Presupposition ...42
Table 4. Utterances with Non-Factive Presupposition ...50
Table 5. Utterances with Counter-Factual Presupposition ...52
Table 6. Utterances with Structural Presupposition ...55
Table 7. The Emphasis on Negative Other Presentation through Existential Presupposition ...60
Table 8. The Emphasis on Positive Self Presentation through Existential Presupposition ...62
Table 9. The Emphasis on Negative Other Presentation through Factive Presupposition ...63
Table 10. The Emphasis on Negative Other Presentation through Non-Factive Presupposition ...64
Table 11. The Emphasis on Negative Other Presentation through Counterfactual Presupposition ...64
Table 12. The Emphasis on Negative Other Presentation through Structural Presupposition ...65
Table 13. The Emphasis on Negative Other Presentation through Lexical Presupposition ...66
Table 14. The Emphasis on Positive Self Presentation through Lexical Presupposition ...68
Table 15. The Emphasis on Positive Self Presentation through Existential Presupposition ...69
Table 16. The Emphasis on Negative Other Presentation through Non-Factive Presupposition ...71
Table 17. The Emphasis on Negative Other Presentation through Counterfactual Presupposition ...72
Table 18. The Emphasis on Negative Other Presentation through Lexical Presupposition ...73
xiii ABSTRACT
TJIA, CHRISTOPHER. Liberty and Optimism Presented through the Presupposed Meaning of the Characters’ Utterances in Dustin Lance Black’s Film Milk. Yogyakarta: English Letters Department, Faculty of Letters, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2016.
Presupposition is something that the speaker assumes to be true before making an utterance. Presupposition as one of the specific concepts in pragmatic approach is used as a means to convey the meaning that is more communicated than what is said. In this case, an underlying belief known as ideology can also be implied through a presupposition. This study analyzes the ideologies promoted by
Harvey Milk and his allies in Dustin Lance Black’s film script entitled Milk.
There are two problems formulated in this study. The first problem concerns on the presupposed meaning that is presented through the characters’ utterances in the film script entitled Milk. The second problem concerns on how the ideologies are presented through the presupposed meaning of the characters’ utterances in the film script entitled Milk.
This study employed an empirical method with the data taken from a film script. The data collection was done using a purposive sampling method which means utterances that either do not contain presupposed meaning or contain presupposed meaning which does not reveal the ideology would be discharged. For the analysis, this study employed a pragmatic approach with presupposition as the specific concept to presuppose certain meaning behind the
characters’ utterances. A critical discourse analysis was enacted to examine the implied meaning beyond the presupposed meaning. In this case, to reveal the ideology carried within the presupposed meaning.
There are two findings in this study. The first one reveals that all of
Yule’s six types of presupposition are depicted in the characters’ utterances.
xiv ABSTRAK
TJIA, CHRISTOPHER. Liberty and Optimism Presented through the Presupposed Meaning of the Characters’ Utterances in Dustin Lance Black’s Film Milk. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2016.
Praanggapan adalah sesuatu yang dianggap sebagai benar sebelum seseorang mengungkapkan tuturannya. Praanggapan, salah satu konsep spesifik di dalam pendekatan pragmatik, digunakan sebagai salah satu cara menyampaikan arti yang melebihi dari apa yang disampaikan seseorang. Di kasus ini, sebuah pemikiran yang mendasar yaitu ideologi dapat diimplikasikan melalui praanggapan. Studi ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis ideologi-ideologi yang dipromosikan oleh Harvey Milk dan persekutuannya di dalam film Dustin Lance Black yang berjudul Milk.
Terdapat dua masalah yang dirumuskan di dalam studi ini. Masalah pertama membahas arti yang dianggap dari tuturan karakter-karakter di dalam film bejrudul Milk. Masalah kedua membahas bagaimana ideologi tertentu ditunjukkan melalui arti yang dianggap dari tuturan karakter-karakter di dalam film bejrudul Milk.
Studi ini menggunakan metode empiris dengan mengambil data-data dari transkrip film. Pengumpulan data tersebut menggunakan teknik purposive sampling yang berarti bahwa tuturan yang tidak mengandung arti yang dianggap atau mengandung arti yang dapat dianggap namun tidak menujukkan ideologi-ideologi tertentu tidak akan digunakan untuk analisis studi ini. Untuk tahap analisis, studi ini menggunakan pendekatan pragmatik dengan praanggapan sebagai konsep spesifik untuk menganggap arti tertentu di balik tuturan karakter di film berjudul Milk. Analisis wacana krisis pun digunakan untuk meneliti arti yang diimplikasikan melalui arti yang dianggap. Di kasus ini, untuk menunjukkan ideologi-ideologi yang dibawa bersama dengan arti yang dianggap.
1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
In the era of 1970s, an inequality under the basis of sexual orientation occured, in which homosexuality is judged as a form of deviance or abnormality. For example, certain discriminative treatment to the LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender) happened when they were assigned with unequal rights and privileges in lots of countries, including the United States of America (USA). Consequently, it initiates the necessity of LGBT society to gain an acknowledgement and acceptance from the society. In order to attain the acknowledgement and acceptance, LGBT society needs to generate a public discourse to the whole society in a state.
This study uses a film written by Dustin Lance Black entitled Milk. Milk (2008) is a biographical film of the first openly gay politician in San Francisco named Harvey Milk, who was demanding for an acceptance towards LGBT society in San Francisco, specifically in a gay neighboorhood, known as The Castro. As a gay rights activist in 1970s, Harvey Milk involved himself to politics, hoping that one day he would be elected as one of the public officers in San Francisco to empower better condition for LGBT society. Therefore, his campaign strategy needs to be done as strategic as possible, such as persuading the society and other characters in the film with the aim to either join him to proliferate the gay liberation movement or gain an adequate number of votes for him to be eligible as an elected public officer in San Francisco during the 1970s. Therefore, this study examines the characters’ utterances to identify the value of liberty and optimism as the ideologies that are carried within the utterances.
Kronenberg, Cleve Jones, and Scott Smith). In the analysis, CDA aims to examine a constituted social inequality expressed by language usage (Weiss and Wodak, 2003: 15). Henceforth, this study will simultaneously reveal how the right wing conservative politician imposes a systematic discrimination against the gay society through their language usage and how the left wing liberals alleviate the issue of gay discrimination in San Francisco during the 1970s.
All of the discourses produced by the characters through their utterances will be analyzed using critical discourse analysis assisted by two linguistic approaches which are pragmatic and lexical semantic approaches. By using the pragmatic approach, the presupposed meaning behind the characters’ utterances will be revealed with the theory of presupposition. However, certain meaning cannot be presupposed with the theory of presupposition in isolation. It means that certain words in the characters’ utterances cannot be directly assumed to presuppose a meaning. Hence, a lexical semantic approach will study the lexical meaning of certain words in the characters’ utterances by looking at the lexical meaning of the words taken from the utterances in isolation. The significance of studying the lexical meaning of certain utterances is to help the understanding on certain types of presuppositions, namely lexical and non-factive presuppositions. Eventually, all of the presupposed meaning will be linked to the social condition to present the idea of liberty and optimism as Harvey Milk’s ideologies in his utterances.
B. Problem Formulation
In order to construct the discussion of the study, there are two problems that are formulated as follows:
1. What is the presupposed meaning in the characters’ utterances in Dustin Lance Black’s film entitled Milk?
2. How does the presupposed meaning present liberty and optimism in Dustin Lance Black’s film entitled Milk?
C. Objectives of the Study
As objectives, this study intends to examine the presupposed meaning in the characters’ utterances. The examination of presupposed meaning can be done under a pragmatic approach, for it concerns with the meaning conveyed by a speaker that is more communicated than what is said. In presupposing certain meaning using either lexical or non-factive presupposition, a lexical semantic approach will be conducted to analyze the lexical meaning of a particular word in order to provide better understanding of the presupposed meaning without any assumption.
condition of San Francisco during the 1970s in order to depict the liberty and optimism that want to be promoted by the film.
D. Definition of Terms
In order to avoid misunderstanding on certain terms, the writer would like to define certain important terms in this study. There are six important terms that will be defined: Characters; Critical Discourse Analysis; Ideology; Lexical Meaning; Presuppositions; Synonymy; Utterance. Characters are defined as the one who is relevant to events occuring in the story (Stanton, 1965: 17). Therefore, everyone who is relevant to the scenes transcribed in the film script can be considered as characters of the film Milk. A critical discourse analysis (CDA) is defined as an interdisciplinary approach to gain a proper understanding in the function of language to transmit certain ideas, organize a social institution, or exercise power (Weiss and Wodak, 2003: 14). It is also emphasized by Weiss and Wodak that “CDA sees – discourse – language use in speech and writing – as a form of social practice” (Weiss and Wodak, 2003: 13). It means that discourse is
“socially constitutive as well as socially conditioned” (Weiss and Wodak, 2003: 13). In other words, critical discourse analysis is a method to examine linguistic features that are attached to certain discourses (in spoken or written form) which are produced in a particular social condition. Therefore, CDA aims to analyze the function of the language in the discourse, for instance transmitting an ideology.
or movement” (2000: 6). It means that ideology is an idea or a value that is commonly shared by all members in a social group or movement. Weiss and Wodak emphasizes that “language mediates ideology in a variety of social
institutions” (2003: 14). It is strengthened by Fairclough by his statement that a range of properties of texts is regarded as potentially ideological, including features of vocabulary and metaphors, grammar, presuppositions and implicatures, politeness conventions, speech-exchange (turn-taking) systems, generic structure, and style (1995: 2). Therefore, language use in a text, including presuppositions and vocabularies (words) are potentially carrying certain ideologies within them. Thus, this study aims to discuss how the linguistic features convey particular ideologies.
In defining lexical meaning, Piasecki states that lexical meaning is the semantic description of logical language that represents certain lexical units (2009: 2). Based on his statement, it indicates that lexical meaning serves a description of certain lexical units using language as the medium to describe certain meaning to noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. In this study, certain words in an utterance will be examined in order to identify the lexical meaning that can contribute to better understanding on certain presupposed information.
In the idea of presupposition, Yule defines presupposition as “something
the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance” (1996: 25). Yule
actual presupposed information by considering the words, phrases, and also the sentences of the utterance.
In defining the idea of utterance, it is stated by Bakhtin that an utterance can be defined as
a link in the chain of speech communication of a particular sphere. The very boundaries of the utterance are determined by a change of speech subjects. Utterances are not indifferent to one another, and are not self-sufficient; they are aware of and mutually reflect one another (1986: 91). Based on Bakhtin’s statement, it means that an utterance is the key in
8 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A. Review of Related Studies
Presupposition is an instrument that can be used to convey a certain fact, truth, or information that is necessary to be known by certain readers, or audiences. Based on the presupposed meaning, it is strategic to depict certain
ideologies that are intended by the speaker‟s utterances in this study. There are two studies that are focused on the concept of presupposition. The first study is an undergraduate thesis entitled “A Study on Pragmatics Presupposition in Countries
and States‟ Slogans” by Astika Christia Destin. Destin‟s study aims to show certain types of presupposition occuring in the slogans of certain countries and states and how presuppositional triggers support those presuppositions in the slogans (2013: 5). In order to achieve the aim her study, Destin employs
descriptive research method to present the research‟s result in a form of rich
description (2013: 6). In her study, she applied descriptive method to explain the presuppositional triggers and the types of presuppositions that occur in the countries‟ and states‟ slogans (Destin, 2013: 51-52). The descriptive method results into the revelation of 6 out of 13 presuppositional triggers and 3 out of 6 types of presuppositions in the slogans (Destin, 2013: vii).
Destin‟s study is related to this study in terms of linguistic approach.
Destin‟s study employs pragmatic approach, presupposition in particular, the
film. Destin‟s study is also helpful for this study, for her strategy on using presuppositional triggers becomes the guidance in this study to examine the types of presupposition that occur in the film script containing the characters‟ utterances. However, Destin concedes that her study only aims to reveal the presupposed meaning in the countries‟and states‟ slogans.
This study extends the scope of presuppositions by relating the presupposed meaning to the context of social revolution that occurs in the film Milk to discover certain truths behind the characters‟ utterances or to analyze the words in the presupposed meaning using the lexical semantic strategy to reveal the lexical meaning of certain words that may assist better understanding on certain presupposed meaning, namely lexical and non-factive presupposition. Therefore, this study is more extensive because the presupposition is linked to the social revolution that is related to the framework of critical discourse analysis.
The second study is an undergraduate thesis entitled “A Study in
She emphasizes that her study discloses four functions of presuppositions in an advertisement. Firstly, presenting the existence of the product or service, this function can be found in an existential presupposition that makes readers consider the existence of the objects, indicated through possessive pronouns (2009: 61-62). Secondly, implicit competition, presupposition is used to obey the law by
avoiding offensive remarks with the advertiser‟s competitor. The implicit
competition in a presupposition can be indicated through comparative and superlative adjectives (2009: 63). Thirdly, making short and memorable message, this function is to make effective and understandable advertisements (2009: 64-65). Lastly, establishing a virtual poetic world, in this function, Humardhiana
argues that “presupposition, as a vital device to express more than what is uttered
literally, can play the role of establishing a virtual poetic world” (2009: 65-66).
Humardhiana‟s study is related to this study in terms of the same methodology, for this study also analyzes certain types of presuppositions that can be found in Milk‟s film script. The difference lies on the different objects that are
scrutinized. Humardhiana‟s study scrutinizes advertisements in several magazines
ideologies with the assistance of critical discourse analysis that provides a framework to link the presupposed meaning to the context of social revolution, gay liberation in particular that occurs during the 1970s. Even though the methodology is the same, the function of presupposition that will be revealed in this study will be different from Humardhiana‟s study.
Their finding of their study is that toddlers demonstrate a relatedness effect in which the looking times to unrelated words were larger than the looking times to related words (Willits et al., 2013:13). According to their findings, they emphasize that
our knowledge of words includes extensive information about their meanings and how they related to other words. These words meanings are part of a semantic system that also represents information about objects, individuals, and events (Willits et al., 2013: 17).
Willits et al.‟s article can be related to this study because both studies employ the same approach which is lexical semantic approach. Their study is also helpful for this study, for their study emphasizes that extensive information about the meaning of certain words is needed in order to gain the knowledge on certain words. In supporting their statement, this study will later on elaborate certain meanings of the words in order to establish the validity on the specific spectrum of presuppositions, namely lexical and non-factive presuppositions. However, this
study differs from Willits et al.‟s study in terms of the goal. Their goal is to prove whether a toddler can use or access their lexical semantic knowledge to either related or unrelated words. This study aims to provide valid presupposed meaning that is presupposed through lexical or non-factive presupposition by analyzing the lexical meaning of certain words, such as verbs or nouns.
Anindyaputri. Anindyaputri argues that Assad uses euphemism to hide an unpleasant truth or the real situation. Thus, the euphemism carries certain meanings examined by semantic properties that contain the ugly truth (2015: 65). Anindyaputri elaborates her argument by saying that the semantic properties are contributive to construct an underlying system which is ideology (2015: 65). She
proves that the ideologies revealed from Assad‟s euphemistic expressions are
national strength and autonomy (2015: xi). According to her study, it shows that linguistic device, including euphemism is able to reveal certain ideologies from a diplomatic discourse (2015: xi). In her analysis, Anindyaputri uses the strategy of componential analysis in order to analyze the meaning of the words; she argues that componential analysis is important to portray lexical meaning of the euphemistic expressions to comprise the whole meaning of certain words (2015: 32). Based on her findings, Anindyaputri concludes that the ideologies
internalized in Assad‟s speech are national strength and autonomy (2015: 80).
Anindyaputri‟s undergraduate thesis can be related to this study because
this study also intends to depict certain ideologies through Harvey Milk‟s
Anindyaputri‟s study, her study directly analyzes the specific spectrum of words (euphemistic expressions) uttered by Assad during his inauguration speech.
Based on all of the studies reviewed above, the stance of this study is to improve the studies above by employing presuppositions and critical discourse analysis. By depicting the ideologies of Harvey Milk based on his utterances, this study develops the significance of presupposition as a linguistic device that assists the critical discourse analysis.
B. Review of Related Theories 1. Pragmatics
Pragmatics is “the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or
writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader)” (Yule, 1996: 3). Yule emphasizes that pragmatics analyzes what people actually mean beyond the usage of words or phrases in their utterances, thus making pragmatics as a study of speaker meaning
(1996: 3). The study of pragmatics involves “interpretation of what people mean
in a particular context and how the context influences what is said”. Therefore,
pragmatics can also be defined as the study of contextual meaning (Yule, 1996: 3). Yule also argues that pragmatics explores the way listeners interpret the
speaker‟s intended meaning by making inferences on what is said (1996: 3).
Yule defines pragmatics as “the study of the relationships between
linguistic forms and the users of those forms” (1996: 4). It is emphasized by Yule
people‟s intended meanings, their assumptions, their purposes and goals, and the
kind of actions they are performing when speaking (1996: 4). 2. Presupposition
Presupposition is “something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to
making an utterance” (Yule, 1996: 25). Based on Yule‟s idea in Pragmatics (1996: 27-30), there are six types of presupposition in certain words, phrases, or sentences. The first is existential presupposition. In existential presupposition, certain information can be presupposed not only through possessive remarks or proper names but also definite noun phrases. One of the examples in existential
presupposition is „your car‟. The word „your‟ is a possessive remark for „you‟ which means that the noun phrase with the possessive remark „your‟ presupposes that “you have a car”. The second is factive presupposition. Factive presupposition can be indicated by certain mental verbs such as „realize‟, „regret‟,
„be‟ with „aware‟, „odd‟, and „glad‟. These mental verbs are responsive to certain fact in a sentence; the fact can be discovered in the object of the sentence as the theme of the verb. For instance, “I wasn‟t aware that she was married” presupposes that “She was married”. By using factive presupposition, the sentence in the example earlier presupposes “She was married” because the object
following the mental verb can be treated as the fact and the verb „aware‟ is
indicating how the speaker (subject) perceives the fact.
„managed‟ to accomplish an achievement, that means that the person succeeded in accomplishing an achievement. Furthermore, certain forms of verb may also show that there is a change of state in that sentence which presupposes certain information. It can be supported by this example, “They stopped smoking” presupposes “They used to smoke”. The presupposed meaning in that example is
“They used to smoke” because the verb „stopped‟ indicates that the subject „they‟ changed their state by putting an end to what they used to start; in this case, smoking. Therefore, the verb „stopped‟ in that sentence presupposes an unstated concept of „started‟ something before it „stopped‟.
The fourth one is structural presupposition, a presupposition that is associated with the usage of certain words or phrases. In structural presupposition, a certain structure takes role in assuming that the information in the sentence is true. Wh-question is the common example of a certain structure that presupposes certain information in that sentence which is already true. For instance, the
question “Where did you buy the bike?” presupposes “You bought the bike”
because this type of presupposition leads the reader to believe that the information presented is necessarily true based on the structure „did‟ that indicates a past
event. In this case, the past event is “You bought the bike”.
The fifth is non-factive presupposition that assumes false information based on the verbs that indicate a certain wish or hope towards something that is
not happening. Verbs like „dream‟, „imagine‟, and „pretend‟ are best to illustrate
fact it is not. Therefore, the verb „pretends‟ shows the negation of the sentence
which is the presupposed meaning.
The last is counter-factual presupposition. In counter-factual presupposition, it assumes that something is not only false but also contrary to the facts. If-clause or conditional sentence is the common example that shows contrary on certain facts. For instance, “If you were my friend, you would have
helped me” presupposes that “you are not my friend” because the conditional
sentence indicates that the if-clause is contrary to the fact. 3. Semantics
Semantics is “the technical term used to refer to the study of meaning,
and, since meaning is a part of language, semantics is a part of linguistics”
(Palmer, 1981: 1). In specific, lexical semantics studies the meaning of certain words and the meaning relationship among words. Palmer elaborates that by using lexical semantics, the meaning of certain words can be stated through their association with other words (1981: 67).
From Palmer‟s statement, it can be concluded that semantics concerns with the meaning on a certain part of language, such as words, phrases, and sentences. Lexical semantics is a specific spectrum of semantics that specifically concerns with the meaning of certain words and the relationship among words. 4. Critical Discourse Analysis
media discourses, political discourses, organizational discourses or dimensions of identity research have become very prominent” (2003: 12). Based on his statement, it shows that certain prominent issues can be drawn by using CDA in scrutinizing a certain text. One of the prominent issues is gender.
In CDA, Fairclough emphasizes that CDA is consolidated as
a „three-dimensional‟ framework where the aim is to map three separate forms of analysis onto one another: analysis of (spoken or written) language texts, analysis of discourse practice (processes of text production, distribution, and consumption) and analysis of discursive events as instances of sociocultural practice (1995: 2).
Based on Fairclough‟s idea, it means that CDA provides a three -dimensional framework that analyzes the texts in three separated forms of analysis, including the analysis of texts, discourse practice, and the discursive events.
In elaborating CDA, Weiss also argues that CDA “cannot be viewed as a
holistic or closed paradigm” (2003: 12). It means that “CDA has never been and has never attempted to be or provide one single or specific theory, and one specific methodology is not characteristic of research in CDA” (Weiss and Wodak, 2003: 12). In other words, it means that CDA needs another
methodology, for CDA‟s objectives can be derived from various theoretical grounds and methodologies, for instance through metaphorical expressions, euphemism, keyword density analysis, or presupposition which is the one employed in this study.
Wodak and Meyer convey that CDA is interested in “the study of
us (ingroups) and them (outgroups)” (2001: 112). Based on their statement, it
means that discourse is seen as ideological that it establishes a polarized group consisting of ingroups and outgroups (oppositions). Thus, it is believed that CDA witnesses “an overall strategy of positive self-presentation and negative other
presentation” (Wodak and Meyer, 2001: 112). In other words, it means that CDA
examines an ideology in a discourse that has an objective to emphasize the
ingroups‟ good things (positive self-presentation) and the outgroups‟ bad things (negative other presentation).
Other than the study of ideologically biased discourse, it is emphasized by Wodak and Meyer that CDA is “the study of the many forms of implicit or indirect meanings, such as implications, presuppositions, allusions, vagueness,
and so on” (2001: 113). They also point out that
implicit meanings related to underlying beliefs, that are not precisely asserted for various contextual reasons, including the well-known ideological objective to de-emphasize our bad things and their good things (Wodak and Meyer, 2001: 113).
Based on their points above, it means that CDA is a strategic tool to scrutinize presuppositions with their implicit meanings that carry an underlying belief known as ideology that is not precisely asserted due to a contextual reason.
Thus, emphasizing ingroups‟ good things and outgroups‟ bad things while de
-emphasizing ingroups‟ bad things and outgroups‟ good things is the strategy to imply the ideology in a presupposition that is used as a biased discourse.
contributes a lot to the social practices in the status quo, which can be known as discursive practrices as well. In elaborating the idea of discursive practices, Weiss and Wodak state that
discursive practices may have major ideological effects – that is, they can help produce and reproduce unequal power relations between (for instance) social classes, women and men, and ethnic/cultural majorities and minorities through the ways in which they represent things and position people (2003: 13).
Based on their point above, it means that such discourses used by people in a social status quo may carry an ideology that can be related to the unequal power relations between the majority and the minority in the society. Therefore CDA focuses on how social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted and resisted in a social or political context (Dijk, 2000: 18).
5. Ideology
Based on Fairclough, ideology is an “implicit philosophy in the practical
activities in social life” (1989:84). It means that an ideology serves as an idea or
belief system that enshapes one‟s social behavior. In conducting an empirical
ideology research, Verschueren states that it is concerned with the meaning of
certain texts and the way it is generated (2011: 21). He adds that “In actual
research practice, most discourse-based studies of ideological processes start from
basic intuitions that are not unrelated to the researcher‟s involvement” (2011: 21). Based on Verschueren‟s point, it means that it is inevitable to involve the
evidence such as linguistic tools (2011: 22). In that light, the presupposed
meaning in this study serves as the linguistic tools that validate the researcher‟s
intuition towards the ideology of liberty and optimism.
In order to relate the presupposed meaning to the revelation of an ideology, Verschueren argues that
Before an aspect of meaning can be seen as an ingredient of ideology, it should emerge coherently from the data, both in terms of conceptual connectedness with other aspects of meaning and in terms of patterns of recurrence or of absence (2011: 23).
Based on his point, it means that it is vital to examine the patterns of recurrence or of absence in the presupposed meaning to present the ideology of
liberty and optimism in Dustin Lance Black‟s film entitled Milk.
C. Review of Related Backgrounds
Harvey Milk, a pioneer of civil rights, becomes the first openly gay politician when he is elected as San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1977. During that time, the gay community is encountering widespread hostility and discrimination. One of the widespread discrimination suffered by the gay community is the marginalization under the basis of inequality in law and social. For instance, police raid forces certain gay society to be put into imprisonment
(jail) or hospital (with the aim to “cure” their homosexuality).
threat does not stop Milk to fight for the LGBT rights when he decides to still run for candidacy even though he suffers three failures. The main purpose of Harvey Milk to be elected as the supervisors is to liberate gay society from any discrimination or persecution. This main purpose comes up when Milk is aware that other minorities namely Afro-American or women have already got their important figure that fights for their rights (minority rights). Therefore, he intends to be the important figure for the gay rights. Thus, his intention creates the nuance of gay liberation during the 1970s.
On November 27, 1978, Dan White, a conservative politician, sneaks in to the City Hall, surviving from the metal detector, and eventually walks down the hall to murder Milk with a gun. In order to pay tribute to Harvey Milk, thousands of society march from Castro Street to City Hall in a silent candlelight vigil. In his recorded will, Harvey Milk conveys that LGBT people‟s participation will be necessary to empower protections for their equal rights (Kronenberg, 2014).
D. Theoretical Framework
There are four theories that will be used in this study. The first one is pragmatics, the second one is presupposition, the third one is lexical semantics, and the last one is CDA. All of these theories will be the guidance in answering both of the formulated problems stated above. The theory of pragmatics is essential to validate the intended meaning of certain speaker to the utterances. One
of the methods to find out the intended meaning of certain speaker‟s utterances is
presupposition is something that the speaker assumes or presupposes through the utterances. Therefore, presupposition is the specific concept of pragmatics that will be essential in finding out the intended meaning of the characters‟ utterances in the film. In presuppositions, these theories will be useful to identify which types of presupposition that can be used appropriately in certain utterances made by the characters in the film.
Therefore, the theory of presupposition is essential in order to depict the presupposed meaning. In order to assist better understanding on either lexical or non-factive presupposition, a lexical semantic strategy will be employed in order to draw the further explanation on certain lexical unit or words such as verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. The further explanation will be done by depicting the lexical meaning of the words in isolation that will be contributive to presuppose the information through lexical presupposition or non-factive presupposition. The main purpose of finding the lexical meaning of the words in lexical and non-factive presupposition is to avoid any assumption on the presupposed meaning. Therefore, the validity can be proven by a further examination on the words using lexical meaning as the relatable factor.
them. Therefore, CDA has an important role in relating the presupposed meaning to the context which will be completed by the depiction of the ideologies in the
25 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
A. Object of the Study
The object of the study is a film script entitled Milk. This film was an autobiographical film of the main character named Harvey Milk, a first openly gay politician back then in 1977. It was released on November 26, 2008. The film was directed by Gus Van Sant and was performed by an Academy Award winning actor Sean Penn. The film script was written by Dustin Lance Black. The transcription of Milk was identical to the film script which was written by Dustin Lance Black and directed by Gus Van Sant. In that light, the transciption of the film is relevant to the dialogs uttered by the characters in the film. The film script consisted of 106 pages. The script was distributed into 160 scenes, but not all scenes depicted the issue of gay discrimination and gay liberation.
The film script of Milk was chosen as the source of data, for the film received eight Academy Award nominations that eventually led to winning two nominations which were Best Actor (Sean Penn) and Best Original Screenplay (Dustin Lance Black). The nomination and victory were the results of its contribution in portraying an issue of homosexuality, which was acclaimed with numerous accolades by the audiences or film critics.
examination, the sentences that are analyzed are the sentences containing certain presupposed meaning. Certain words and phrases are also essential to complement this study because certain words or phrases in the sentence containing the presupposed meaning may also be important to be examined.
B. Approach of the Study
The foundation of this study is comprised of two linguistic approaches. Firstly, the pragmatic approach is applied. As stated above, pragmatic approach deals with certain meanings that are communicated by a speaker. The data of this study are certain sentences uttered by the characters in Black’s film script. Therefore, pragmatic approach is the strategic approach to treat the data as the object of examination to discover the meaning that aims to be communicated by the characters in Black’s film script. Eventually, the examination of the meaning communicated by the characters will be done under the specific concept of presupposition which reveals certain presupposed meaning in the characters’ utterances. As stated above, presupposition is something that the speaker assumes to be the case through his or her utterance. Thus, presupposition conveys certain information that can be presupposed through certain utterances. Consequently, presupposition will be essential in depicting certain presupposed meaning from the characters’ utterances and the presupposed meaning will be related to the context of gay liberation in San Francisco during the 1970s.
utterances (speaker meaning). Furthermore, pragmatic approach also concerns with how particular context may reveal what people actually mean in his or her utterances (contextual meaning). In this case, presupposition will be employed to convey certain presupposed meaning which will be the portrayal of what the characters actually mean beyond their utterances and it will be related to the context of gay liberation in San Francisco during the 1970s.
However, in particular presuppositions which are lexical and non-factive presuppositions, the depiction on the presupposed meaning cannot be done in isolation due to the potential unproven assumption on certain words in the utterances. Therefore, a lexical semantic approach is conducted because it concerns with the meaning of words that will be contributive to assist the understanding of the presupposed meaning.
Secondly, CDA is applied in the aim of discovering the significance of the presupposed meaning. As stated above, CDA is essential to depict certain ideas beyond the language in a text under a critical scrutiny. In this study, CDA will discover that Black’s film script depicts certain prominent ideologies carried
C. Method of the Study
The study is conducted under two necessary procedures which are data collection and data analysis. Data collection is the initial step of this study. Data analysis is the final step of this study to discover the findings of this study.
1. Data Collection
A purposive sampling study was executed in order to only analyze the utterances of the characters in Black’s film script that may led to the internalization of either liberty or optimism. There were several procedures in collecting the data. The first was by acquiring the transcription of the film. The film script was downloaded from The Screenplay Database on September 8, 2015. The second was by examining all 160 scenes and classifying certain scenes containing a potentially presupposed meaning in an utterance uttered by the characters in the film script. The third was discharging the scenes that did not have the utterance that might have potentially presupposed meaning, for it was unnecessary in accomplishing the objectives of this study. The last was putting all of the presupposed meaning into a further examination to discover the prominent ideologies behind the presupposed meaning.=
2. Data Analysis
using Yule’s theory of presupposition in order to validate the presupposed meaning behind the characters’ utterances. In some cases, such as presenting the presupposed meaning through lexical and non-factive presupposition, a lexical semantic approach was employed. In order to find the meaning of certain words that might give better understanding on the presupposed meaning, this study refered to the eighth edition of Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. The presupposed meaning would not be the final outcome of the analysis, for the presupposed meaning might carry certain ideas beyond the language use. Consequently, the presupposed meaning would be the basis of the film Milk’s prominent ideologies in the context of 1970s characterized in Black’s film script.
In order to find out the prominent ideologies behind the characters’ utterances, CDA was employed in the process of analysis. Knowing that CDA could relate certain language use with a specific context, this study aimed to relate the presupposed meaning to the context of gay liberation in the 1970s led by Harvey Milk. Consequently, the presupposed meaning would be interpreted as the depiction of what was happening during the 1970s in San Francisco. Then, the presupposed meaning would be related to what kind of belief or aim that the film carried during the context of gay liberation in 1970s. After that, this belief or aim could be translated to the ideologies that the film carries in order to improve the condition of inequality in San Francisco during the 1970s.
30 CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
This chapter will be divided into two parts of analysis. The first part of the analysis portrays the contribution of the pragmatic approach with the specific concept of presupposition to depict the presupposed meaning in Harvey Milk‘s utterances. The theory of presupposition will be assisted with a lexical semantic approach to help the understanding of certain presupposed meaning depicted through either lexical or non-factive presupposition. The first part of the analysis answers the first problem formulation of the study.
A. Presupposed Meaning in the Characters’ Utterances
This part examines the presupposed meaning that can be identified through the utterances made by the characters in Dustin Lance Black‘s film entitled Milk. There are six types of presuppositions affirmed by Yule (1996) which are existential presupposition, factive presupposition, lexical presupposition, non-factive presupposition, counter-factual presupposition, and stuctural presupposition. The presupposed meaning in the utterances made by the characters in Dustin Lance Black‘s can be presupposed in all types of
presuppositionsaffirmed by Yule. In this chapter, the symbol ―>>‖ stands for presupposes and the underlined word, phrase, or sentence shows the trigger of each presupposed meaning. The percentage of types of presuppositions that occur in characters‘ utterances in Dustin Lance Black‘s film entitled Milk is presented in
chart 4.1. as follows.
1. Presupposed Meaning in Existential Presupposition
Existential presupposition is a type of presupposition which presupposes certain meaning by using definite descriptions such as possesive remarks, noun phrases, or proper names. Based on the data above, it indicates that the researcher finds 25.6% out of 39 utterances in the film script that belong to the existential presupposition. There are 10 utterances in the film script that presuppose meaning based on existential presupposition. The summary of the presupposed meaning based on existential presupposition can be seen in the table below.
Page/Scene Characters Utterances
1/3 Harvey Milk Harvey Milk‘s recorded will 9/20
36/57 Harvey Milk Conversation with a boy
41/67 Dan White Press Conference
49/76 Channel 5 Reporter
68/94 Harvey Milk Harvey Milk‘s recorded will 70/99 Cleve Jones
Harvey Milk Conversation
81/112 Harvey Milk Speech at the City Hall‘s front doors Table 1. Utterances with Existential Presupposition
(1) Harvey Milk: If I was speaking to a slightly hostile or mostly straight audience, I‘d try to break the tension with a joke (p.1). >> There is a slightly hostile and straight audience.
Based on the utterance above, it presupposes that there is a slightly hostile and straight audience in San Francisco during the 1970s, indicated by the noun phrase a slightly hostile or mostly straight audience. Those two noun phrases presuppose the existence of a slightly hostile audience that is mostly straight (non-homosexual). The second utterance is found in Scene 9, portraying Harvey Milk‘s conversation with two other characters namely McConnelly and
Scott Smith.
(2) McConnelly: I don‘t think your application will be approved Mr. Milk. This is a family neighboorhood. Your kind is far more welcome on Haight Street.
Harvey Milk: (trying to keep it friendly) What ―kind‖ do you mean, sir?
McConnelly: (not playing along) The Merchant‘s Association will have the police pull your license if you open your doors.
Scott Smith: Based on what law?
McConnelly: There‘s a man‘s law and there‘s God‘s law in this neighboorhood and in this city. The San Francisco Police force is happy to enforce either.
Harvey Milk: (to McConnelly as he walks away) Thanks for the warm welcome to the neighboorhood! (p.9).
>> There is a ―kind‖ of person that refers to a gay person or gay community that is far more welcome on Haight Street.
>> There is a law established by the society and God‘s law in San Francisco.
means a group of people or things that is the same in some ways. Thus, the possessive remark your uttered by McConnelly refers to Harvey Milk‘s possession. It means that your kind refers to the people that are the same as Harvey Milk in some ways, in this case sexual orientation. Thus, your kind means gay people (homosexuals) who are in the same position as Harvey Milk. The second one is that there is an existence of man‘s law and God‘s law in San Francisco, indicated by the genitive (‗s) that is attached to the noun man and God which means that the law belongs to both man and God. Therefore, it is presupposed that there is a man‘s law and God‘s law in San Francisco.
The third utterance is found in Scene 25, portraying Harvey Milk‘s conversation with David Goodstein.
(3) David Goostein: For you, politics is a game, a lark. Like putting a rock festival or staging a ―love-in.‖ You‘re too old to be a hippie, Harvey Milk!
Harvey Milk: I‘m not a candidate. I‘m part of a movement. The movement is the candidate (p.26).
>> There is a movement.
Based on the conversation above, Harvey Milk‘s utterance presupposes that there
is a movement that is a part of Harvey Milk. The presupposed meaning can be indicated by the noun phrase a movement which illustrates the existence of a movement advocated by Harvey Milk. The fourth utterance is found in Scene 57, portraying Harvey Milk‘s conversation with a boy.
(4) Harvey Milk: There are people out here just like you who will welcome you and love you (p.36).
Based on Harvey Milk‘s utterance, it presupposes that there are people
out there in San Francisco, indicated by the noun phrase people. The fifth utterance is found in Scene 67, portraying the speech of Dan White in a press conference.
(5) Dan White: I‘m not going to be forced out of San Francisco by splinter groups of social radicals, social deviants, and incorrigibles (p.41).
>> There are splinter groups of social radicals, social deviants, and incorrigibles.
Based on Dan White‘s utterance above, it presupposes that there are
splinter groups of social radicals, social deviants, and incorrigibles. The presupposed meaning can be indicated through the noun phrase splinter groups which are elaborated with the prepositional phrase of social radicals, social deviants, and incorrigibles. The prepositional phrase takes a significant contribution as the modifier of the noun phrase splinter groups. The sixth utterance is found in Scene 76, portraying an interview between Harvey Milk and Channel 5 Reporter.
(6) Reporter: Does this mean, as many straights are concerned, maybe the gays are taking over San Francisco? Are you going to be a Supervisor for all the people?
Harvey Milk: I have to be. That‘s what I was elected for. I have to be there to open up the dialogue for the sensitivities of all people, all their problems, the problems that affect this city affect all of us. (toasts the camera) Thank you San Francisco! Thank you! (p.49).
>> There are sensitivities of all people, all their problems, the problems that affect this city affect all of us.
which is elaborated by a prepositional phrase of all people, all their problems, the problems that affect this city affect us all as the modifier of the noun phrase. Thus, Harvey Milk presupposes that sensitivities by people which affect the gay community during the 1970s exist.
The seventh utterance is found in Scene 88, portraying Harvey Milk‘s
conversation with Anne Kronenberg.
(7) Harvey Milk: Good or bad?
Anne Kronenberg: Not great. State Senator John Briggs is Anita Bryant‘s go to-guy in California for sure. He‘s filed his petition for a statewide referendum to fire all gay teachers and anyone who supports them (p.58).
>> John Briggs and Anita Bryant exist.
>> There is a petition for a statewide referendum to fire all gay teachers. >> There are gay teachers.
The eighth utterance is found in Scene 94 where Harvey Milk records his will in a tape recorder.
(8)Harvey Milk: Across the country, a handful of city councils had passed the very first ordinances protecting gay people against discrimination. But Anita Bryant and her right wing Christian fundamentalists were creating and exploiting and fanning a backlash. Now she had referenda to repeal of these gay rights ordinances. While we ere preparing for the battle against Briggs and Prop Six, Anita Bryant was taking her show on the road. . .sweeping the country. Her next stop was Wichita, Kansas (p.68).
>> There are first ordinances protecting gay people against discrimination.
>> There are right wing Christian fundamentalists.
>> There are referenda to repeal the gay rights ordinances. >> Prop Six exists.
Based on Harvey Milk‘s utterance above, it presupposes four kinds of presupposed meaning. The first one is there are first ordinances protecting gay people against discrimination, indicated by the noun phrase first ordinances that is followed by a reduced adjective clause protecting gay people against discrimination. The second one is there are right wing Christian fundamentalists as the avid supporters of Anita Bryant, Harvey Milk‘s opposition. It is indicated
right wing Christian fundamentalists, referenda to repeal the gay rights ordinances, and Prop Six.
The ninth utterance is found in Scene 99, portraying conversation with Cleve Jones.
(9) Cleve Jones: What do I do with this?
Harvey Milk: You‘re an activist. Take it. March them. March those people up to the front doors of City Hall. When it looks really bad, the city‘s first gay Supervisor will come out and play peacemaker. We save the city from a riot. We can turn this night into more political power for the cause (p.70).
>> There is an activist named Cleve Jones.
>> There is a first gay Supervisor in the city who will come out and play peacemaker.
Based on the conversation above, it presupposes two kinds of meaning. The first is there is an activist named Cleve Jones, indicated by noun phrase an activist. The activist is named Cleve Jones because the pronoun you uttered by Harvey Milk refers to Cleve Jones, the one who is having a conversation with him in Scene 99. The second is there is a first gay Supervisor who will come out and play peacemaker, indicated by the genitive (‗s) attached to the noun city in Harvey Milk‘s utterance above. It means that the first gay Supervisor belongs to the city,
in this case San Francisco. The phrase will come out and play peacemaker is the complement of the first gay Supervisor that is presupposed in this utterance.
The tenth utterance is found in Scene 112, depicting Harvey Milk‘s speech at the City Hall‘s front doors.
against Anita Bryant and John Briggs, who are trying to legalize bigotry (p.81).
>> Democracy exists >> Bigotry exists
Based on Harvey Milk‘s utterance above, it presupposes two entities that
exist which are democracy and bigotry. The existence of democracy is presupposed through the possesive remark our which indicates that the ―existing democracy‖ belongs to Harvey Milk and his avid supporter who proliferates the
gay liberation as well. The existence of bigotry is presupposed through the noun phrase bigotry itself. Lexically, bigotry means the state of feeling, or the act of expressing strong and unreasonable beliefs or opinions about race, religion, politics, or sexual orientation.Therefore, it is relevant to say that Anita Bryant and John Briggs, as the opposition of the gay liberation movement, would like to legalize the bigotry that exists.
2. Presupposed Meaning in Factive Presupposition
presupposition. The summary of the presupposed meaning based on factive presupposition can be seen in the table below.
Page/Scene Characters Utterances
2/5 Harvey Milk Harvey Milk‘s recorded will 3/11 Harvey Milk Harvey Milk‘s recorded will
41/66 Dan White Press Conference
Table 2. Utterances with Factive Presupposition
Three utterances mentioned above presuppose meaning indicated through the mental verb of the sentence. The first utterance is found in Scene 5, depicting Harvey Milk‘s recorded will in his apartment.
(1) Harvey Milk: I fully realize that a person who stands for what I stand for – an activist, a gay activist – becomes the target or potential target for a person who is insecure, terrified, afraid, or very disturbed themselves. . . (p.2). >> There is a person who stands for what Harvey Milk stands for, such as an activist or gay activist that becomes the potential target of a person who is insecure, terrified, afraid, or disturbed themselves.
The second utterance is found in Scene 11 which also portrays Harvey Milk‘s recorded will in his apartment.
(2) Harvey Milk: Knowing that I could be assasinated at any moment, I feel it‘s important that some people should understand my thoughts (p.3).
>> Harvey Milk could be assasinated at any moment.
Based on Harvey Milk‘s utterance, it presupposes that Harvey Milk could be assasinated at any moment, indicated by their position as the object of the verb knowing. It means that the verb knowing is responsive to the fact that Harvey Milk could be assasinated at any moment. The pronoun I in the utterance also refers to Harvey Milk because it is uttered by Harvey Milk in the scene which means that the pronoun I belongs to Harvey Milk. The third utterance is found in Scene 66, depicting a press conference held by Harvey Milk‘s opposition named Dan White.
(3) Dan White: You must realize there are thousands upon thousands of frustrated, angry people such as yourselves waiting to unleash a fury that will eradicate the malignanies which blight our beautiful city (p.66).
>> There are thousands upon thousands of frustrated, angry people such as yourselves waiting to unleash a fury that will eradicate the malignanies which blight our beautiful city.
Dan White presupposes that the there are thousand people who are furious enough due to seeing gay community as the malignancies that may blight or damage San Francisco.
3. Presupposed Meaning in Lexical Presupposition
Lexical presupposition is a type of presupposition which pressuposes a meaning by the meaning of a word asserted from the utterances. Therefore, the lexical meaning of a certain word needs to be defined in order to convey a proper presupposed meaning. The chart above indicates that 35.9% (14) of 39 utterances belong to lexical presupposition. The summary of the presupposed meaning based on lexical presupposition can be seen in the table below.
Page/Scene Characters Utterances
5/15 Harvey Milk
Scott Smith Conversation 14/27 Allan Baird
Harvey Milk Conversation
15/27 Harvey Milk Harvey Milk‘s recorded will 17/31 Harvey Milk Speech at the Castro Street 17/31 Harvey Milk Speech at the Castro Street 18/31 Harvey Milk Speech at the Castro Street 20/33 Harvey Milk Harvey Milk‘s recorded will 39/61 Harvey Milk Speech at the City Hall 39/61 Harvey Milk Speech at the City Hall 39/63 Harvey Milk Harvey Milk‘s recorded will 41/68 Harvey Milk
The first utterance is found in Scene 15, both of them are portraying the conversation between Harvey Milk and Scott Smith.
(1) Scott Smith: Now you tell me.
Harvey Milk: There‘s nothing tougher than a New York City cop. They‘re arrogant, and they‘re everywhere (p.5).
>> New York City cops are behaving in an unpleasant way.
In utterance (1), it presupposes that New York City cops are behaving in an unpleasant way towards the gay community in San Francisco, indicated by the lexical meaning of arrogant. It is also strengthened by the phrase uttered by Harvey Milk that there is nothing tougher than the arrogant New York City cops mentioned before.
The second utterance is found in Scene 27, portraying the conversation between Allan Baird and Harvey Milk.
(2) Allan Baird: What‘s that?
Harvey Milk: The mayor part. I‘ve considered gathering an army of queers to march up the City Hall and secede (p.14). >> Harvey Milk considers gathering an army of queers to become independent, separating themselves from the nation.
