The Characteristiscs Of Terror Action In Indonesia A Socio-cultural And Psychological Study.

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Dr. zainai Abidin, u.Si

DISAHPAIKAil DAI.AII ACARA

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TE1AH DICATAT/DIDOKUMENTASI KAN PADA

PERPUSTAI(MN

FAKU LTAS PSIKOLOGI

UNIVERSITAS PADJADJARAN

Perpustakan

Jatnika, MT 32021988032003

Telah diperiksa oleh :

Guru Besar/Dosen Senior

Prof.Dr. Hj. Kusdwiratri SetYono

Fakultas Psikologi [tas Padjadjaran

KETUA BAGIAN PSIKOLOGI _KLINIS

&-a-a-o

_{k_d\___-.-.}

Drs. H.Hatta Atbanik, M.psi

N lP. 1 947 05121981 03 1 001

Terdaftar di perpustakaan

Fakultas Psikologi Universitas padjadjaran

Fakultas Psikologi

Asia Psychologlcal

Association First Convention

Arrgrrst,

18-20, tr(rrta Paradiso

Ifotel, Bali

TIIE

CIIARACTERISTICS OF TERROR ACTION

IN

INDONESIA.

A SOCIO.CULTTIRAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL STTIDY

By

Zatrral Abidin

A

number of writers and observers of terrorism admitted the difficulty in defining

explaining terrorism comprehensively, _{acceptable to all} parties.

It

is understandable

terrorism is a multidimensional issue, involving many aspects such as politic, legal,

,

social, history, psychology, _{ideology, religion, morality, humanity, ethnicity,} race. Therefore, when

it

comes

to

defining terrorism, observers _{and writers} are

perely capable

of

explaining one (or two) of these dimensions, giving no consideration

rfr other aspects. Indeed,

I

myself cannot escape from such difficulty. However, in this

'aper

I

try to unveil at glance the historical, social, political, and socio psychological imensions of terorrism in Indonesia.

Discussing terrorism

in

Indonesia is very interesting, taking into account that

it

nds to proliferate continuously since 2000

until

2}Ol.Indonesia becomes the focus

of

temational world due

to

numerous terrorist acts and violence taking place

in

the rountry. Several countries such as United States and Australia had warned their citizens

ot to visit Indonesia because

it

is considered as a dangerous country for their citizens.

,,'!"ictims of terrorism in Indonesia.

The following are data of terrorist acts and violence in Indonesia:

o

fu 2000, a bomb blast occurred at the Philippine Embassy in Jakarta, a grenade

explosion at the Malaysian Embassy, a bomb explosion at the Jakarta Stocks

'

In

2007, _{there was a bomb explosion at}

the

_Jakarta

Atrium

_plaza,

Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) in Makasar, and Ausftalia International School in Jakarta.

'

In 2002, there was a grenade _{explosion at new year in front}

of

_{JakartaBulungan}

Chicken Restaurant,

a

_{bomb explosion}

in

Bali (The

fust Bali

Bombing),

Philippine _{General Consulate in Manado North Sulawesi,}

and at

Mc

Donald,s

Reastaurant _{in Makassar.}

r

fu

2003, _{there was a bomb blast at one part}

of

_{National police}

Headquarter, cengkareng _{International Airport and J.w. Marriot}

Hotel.

'

In 2004, there was a bomb explosion _{at Palopo Cafe and Australian}

Embassy.

'

In

2005' there was a bomb blast in a housing estate in _{Tangerang and two other}

explosion in Bali.

'

A number of bomb explosions _{occurred in Ambon and} poso _{between 2002-2005.}

'

Since 2002 until now there has been a widespread _{terror action without bomb}

explosion, grenade _{or gunfire but in the form of}

destruction of places suspected to

solicit

immoral activities (hotel, bar, cafe, karaoke); attacks _{and desffuction}

of

citizens's house and worship places

that

are perceived

as

_{offering deviant}

practices; _{and threat towards people whose}

opinions on religious teachings _are perceived _{as "misguiding,,.}

:1v[1$ consideration

to

_targets

of

_terrorism

in

_{Indonesia, the}

above

data

may be

cuped into the following categories:

1'

The Embassy of the united States, its citizens as well as its allies, especially

Australia, and symbols _{reflecting the western or the}

united

_{states (such}

as:

KFC, McDonald's, paddy's _{Crub, Marriot Hotel, etc.). The reason}

as to why the United states _{and Ausftalian citizens and western symbols become}

the

target of terror is primarily _{due to their hostile actions toward Islamic}

world

and Arabic people, including, among others, _{the attack}

to

_{Afghanistan and}

kaq.

2'

The Embassy _{and General Consulate office of Malaysia}

and philippine.

It

is

possibie _{that the attacks toward representative}

offices of the fwo countries in

Indonesia were carried out due to the fact that

it

is too risky to perform terrorist

action

in

respective countries (attibutable

to

tight

_security

in

_those

countries)' Therefore _{the terrorists shifted their targets}

of the two countries _in the _{Indonesia territory where security system is relatively}

loose. These act

of

terrorism become a strong indicator that terrorism in Indonesia is in the same

network as terrorism in Malaysi _{a andphilippine (also singapore).}

3'

churches' Attacks

against

churches _{occurred following the blowing}

up

_of religious _{conflict in Ambon and Poso. The}

attacks were aimed at _{spreading up}

the conflict _{and arousing the fear of the people}

in

several regions

of

Indonesia.

4'

Goverment _{offices, especially Police Headquarters.}

No

_{obvious reason could}

explain as to why the National Police _{Headquarter became one of the bombing} targets. However,

it

is

_{suspected that the terror}

was

meant

to

be

a

shock

therapy _{for the} porice _{or to flaunt terrorists, power in}

Indonesia.

5'

Public spaces, especially _{malls and luxurious places or buildings}

where

it

is

assumed to _{be frequently visited by foreigners and the}

affluent.

It

is clear that

these _{places are reratively strategic to}

be

a

tarret of a brast, _{no matter how}

minor it, since it would _{gain media attention.}

6'

Places

suspected

to

solicit

_{immoral activities. Such places are}

not

only

perceived _{as operating against the}

law but also _{violating moraliry and religious} teachings, and may damage the society

-{ question remains, _{who are rndeed the actors behind}

those terrorism actions?

A number of observers and mass media suspect that the JI (Jamaah _{Islamiyah) is}

-'tlieved

to

have been involved

in

all

_{the four major bomb attacks}

-

in

Bali in Jctober 2002 and 2005,

at

the Marriott

Hotel,

_Jakarta

in

_{2003 and outside}

the

'\ustralian Embassy, Iakarta

n

_{2oo4 (ICG, 2005). JI is}

arso suspected to be invorved

a

the _{bombing of the Embassies and General}

Consurate _offices

of

_{Malaysia and}

?hilippine. Meanwhile Laskar Jihad

is

suspected

to

_{carry out the bombing}

of

a :umber of churches, _{Front Pembela Islam (Islamic Defendant}

Front) is suspected to :ave attacked _{severar praces suspected}

to solicit immorar practices.

It

would

be

interesting

if

that suspicion

is

_proved

to

be

true since those

nizations are indeed independently _{exist even though they are under the}

same

ogcal umbrella of Islam' However, _{in this case,}

it

_{is not Islam}

' the majority of Moslem in Indonesia and many countries. To the terrorist actor all

mic values have to be applied in every aspect of life without exception and those not

line with the values are considered sinful and should be combated. Holy war (ihad)

inst sinful practices and fight against non-believers should be done physically and

y. Terrorist actions are parr of the Holy War (ihad)

Socio historical and social psychological perspective on terrorism in Indonesia.

Based on documentary study on terrorism in Indonesia there are factors that may

in the cause

of

terrorism emergence

in

Indonesia. These factors, among others,

Historical, economic, and potitical factors:

(1)

The history of rebellious acts

in

Indonesia. Several observers believe that

terrorism

in

Indonesia

is

inseparable

from the

history

of

separatist

movement done by Darul Islam (DI) that had been growing since 1948 in

West Java and spreading out to several regions in Indonesia (Sulawesi and Sumatra).

DI

movement was aimed at building Islamic nation in Indonesia.

According to ICG (International Crisis Group, 2005) the terror movements

that happened

lately

are inseparable from

DI

and more

or

less have

network \Mith DI. Ideas, paftiotism, _{heroism, and method or tactic}

to

_move

their bases to escape from the opponents chase (army and police) adopted

by current terrorists mostly reflect those embraced by

DI

figures in the past.

@

Problem

of

injustrce

in

economic development. Economic development

initiated during the New Order era had created social, culfural, economic,

political, _{and educational inequality. As a result, there has been social and}

culrural gap between members

of

the society and berween some social

groups and the govemment. _{This condition had left a number}

of

_people feeling underpriviledged, such as some Islamic group who feel disappointed

and treated

unfairly

Terrorists

in

Indonesia generally come

from

the

(3)

relatively

low.

only

_{a small number}

of their readers come from _{sociar and}

economic _{class that are relatively hrgh.}

Political factor. The era of repressive _{New order regime reft no}

space to

radical _{Islam to openly ctiized the government.}

During that period, _many

Islamic boarding schoors _{were suspeoed and several}

outspoken students and ulema were _{arested (...) However, soon after the}

fall

of New order,

radical Islamic _{organisations such as}

FpI,

Laskar Jihad, and

MMI

were

emerging _{without poritical pressure and}

regal sanction _{from the government}

even though some of their _{actions may be categorized as terror}

actions.

Socio Psychological _{Factors :}

(t)

Inferiority feeling _{and anger. Terrorist actors}

generally come _{from a marginal} group _{in term of economy and politic.}

They position themselves _{as the abused}

goup, mistreated _{by political power and market}

economy. They refi.rse to get

involved in _{political circle or mainstream because}

they perceive those

a*s

as

dirty _{practices' Those who want to enter political}

arena and mainstream had failed due to their incompetence _{in the areas. As a result, they}

feel inferior and

anw.

(2)

Isolation and

_{brainwashing.}

There

are

formal

and,

informar

rerigious

organisation or instirutions that facilitate, organize, _{and educate the youngsters}

from that marginal group'

within

_{those instirutions}

there is a fum line between

in-group and out-group,

"we"

and "you", the righteous _{and the wicked, the}

right and wrong. _{In-group is the goup who is righteous}

while the out_group is

the wicked, evil, devil, and _{sinner. Brainwashing processes take place}

within

those _{instirution' To a certain degree, they}

are also isolated into different goup

within

the insitutions _themserves

to

_{ensure strong}

in_group _{and out_group}

identity and to _Suarantee that the _{ideology or doctrine entrenched in}

theu mind

by their _{leaders are not "poruted,, by the outside}

worrd. Arthough they can lead

a normal life

in

_{the community, they are capable}

of hiding their self-identity

and their terrorism acdvity. _{Their ability to hide their identity}

is made possible

by the fact that _{they always move from one place}

(3) Conformity.

within

_{every institution there is always}

a

leader and followers. Generally, aleader holds a central position _{and is charismatic that every word}

or

order

he

says

will

be

followed unconditionally

by his

_{followers. The}

followers higly respect the leader and would do any suggestion proposed _{by the} leader, _{including to carry out a suicide bombrng.}

(4) _{Affirmation of in-group identity ("we',) and out-group (,,you,,)}

and a negative

perception _{against the out-group set}

off

_{the emergence}

of

dehumanization attitude toward the _{out-group. The out-group is assumed to be inhuman}

or half-human being. In this context

it

is understandable _{that terorist acts againts the}

out-8roup is deemed as normal. Kilhng and massacre of ideological opponents

are nofinal because the out-group is _{considered as enemy and not a human}

being.

(5) The terrorists experienced an out-group homogeneity _{bias, causing them to}

perceive every member of the out-group as the same, beanngno differences. As the result, every member of the opposition group (out-group)

will

_potentially become a victim

of

terror,

with

no exception. _{Innocent civilians can be the}

target

of

terror because _{they belong}

to

_{the opposition side}

or part

of

the

opponents (Imam Samudra. . .).

(6) _{Rationalization' Theological justification}

for terorism

acts

is

intentionally

searched from the verses of the holy book. Terror is interpreted as jihad (hoty

war) and

iihad is

_interpreted

as

_{physical war against}

religious enemy and people _{with different beliefs. Verses from}

the holy book _{are used to}

justiff

_the

terrorist acts' There are numbers of verses in

AI

_Qur'an that tell story about the

struggle and battle of the prophet _{Muhammad and his army against}

the enemy

of

Islam'

The verses are then interpreted as to validate _{their terrorist acts with} their own interpretation,

(7) Belief

in

going

to

heaven. Based _{on theological foundation, risk and}

death

includrng

death

_caused

by

_exploding

a

_bomb

in

one,s own body (suicide

bombing) is believed by the actors to be a passport _{to heaven guaranteed by}

(8) Perception _{on the}

lacking of Iaw enforcers to change the prevaling _siruadon.

This perception _{has been mentioned,}

for example, _{by FpI reader,}

Habib Riziek,

who said _{that FPI}

will

_{be disbanded}

if police and _{law enforcers trury}

carry out

their duties

to

_{abolish immoraliry.}

If

this is true, then terrorism _{becomes an} alternative'

when

_the

law

_{is perceived}

to

_{be dysfunction and preaches} are

considered _{to be ineffective,}

then terror is the opdon. In many terrorism cases _in

several _{countries' terrorist}

act becomes _{the strategic choice (Martha}

crenshaw, lee8).

(9)

_{Belief that}

teror

_{is a tool}

and not

a

goal. _{The main goar of terrorism}

act is to engender _{changes' especially}

a

change _{toward a society that hold}

values they

adopt' Therefore'

if

_{there are victims}

of

terror _{who come from the sim,ar} religion

orother

in

_faith)

they are believed

to

_{die as}

a

_{martyr and}

will

go

straight _{to heaven' victims}

are only the price _{to be paid in struggle to}

achieve

the urtimare _{goal, that is a}

sociefy embracing the values _{they adopt (see Imam}

Samudera,2OO4).

Characteristics _{of terror action in}

Indonesia How does _{terorism in Indonesia differ}

from that of _{other counfties?}

Some psychological _{factors experienced}

by the terorrists _{in Indonesia may}

be sim,ar

to those experienced _{by their counterparts}

in other _{countries and those with}

different

religious _{background (for example,}

terrorists _{who are Christian}

and Jewish _{in other}

::Tl::] 1',or

_characterize however, distinguished factors

rhat

are different

tsrll

_andano

terrorism

in

_Indonesia.

These differences _are,

for

_exampre,

norr..l

fuough.

I

'

History' _{Terrorism in Indonesia}

is rooted _{from the historical struggle}

of some

Indonesian people

in

_{order to find}

the nation,s _{form and ideol0gy.}

severar

years _{after Indonesian}

independence _{from the Dutch}

col0niar (1g45) _there

were _{rebellion and terrorist}

acts done by

DI

to tum Indonesia _{into an Islamic}

nation' The _{influence and network of}

DI

now still _{exist inside organisations}

that carried out terrorist _{acts. Terrorism in}

other countries _{certainly have their} own respective _history.

I

-2'

The actors are from the majoriry goup. In other countries such as philippine

and India, for example, terrorist acts are done by the minority groups againts

the majority

goup

who has economic and _{political power. The terrorist acts}

they do

were

meant to fight against the majority hegemony.

on

the other

hand,

in

Indonesia, adors actually come from majority group (moslem)

eventhough they are the minority within _{the group (radical moslem). How}

could this possibly happen? This is due to the fact that the majoriry of people

at national level economically belong to the mrnoriry groups.

It

means that

even though bv number moslem _{population is the majority}

in

_Indonesia,

nationally they belong to the minoriry group in term of economic ownership

(power).

3'

There is no social support _for terrorists. In many other countries, especially in

term

of

_{religious and political terrorism such as}

in

_{Israel and palestine,}

a

number

of

_{citizens support the actors.}

In

_{Indonesia, however, there is no}

social support from Indonesian society toward the terrorists. This absence

of

support is recognizable by the lack

of

mass protection

for

terrorist actors.

Only a few citizens protect and

hide

terrorists from the police. Since they

gain

no

_{support, the terrorists often seek hiding places}

in

_the

area where people are paying less _{affention to one another. These places among others}

are boarding houses, recreational _{areas, and isolated praces.}

4.

variety

of

terrorist

organisation

and

target. As

_{mentioned above,}

organizations suspected as the _{terrorist actors are coming}

from

_different

organizations

with

_{various motiyes and targets. This}

means, terrorism in

Indonesia

widely

diversed.

It

has

not

_been

known

for

_{sure whether}

organizations _{suspected as terrorist}

in

_{other countries have}

a wide range

of

targets as those in Indonesia.

If

_{not, then Indonesia may be among a few}

(if

not the only one) countries in the world with the most terrorist organizations

and with the widest variation of terrorism targets.

Reccomendation

l'

Economic

and

_{educational deveropment}

shourd

grve prioriry

to

_the

empowe[nent _{of adherents of Islam}

with lower _{economic, social, and cultural}

status' _{Despite the fact that they}

are the _{majoriry of Indonesian sociery,} their social and economic _{status are relatively low.}

The prevalent feeling of defeat

and hopelessness _{experienced by some}

of them are potentials _{in creating other} terrors _in the future.

2'

The big and moderate _{Isram organizatrons (especialy,}

Nu,

Muhamm adiyah,

MUD

has

to

play theu strategic _rore

for

_{empowering their}

members and

elevating the _{quality of life of moslem community}

as to promote _{their status}

to be equal to other segment _{of society who has achieved}

higher standard

of

living.

3' In

quantity'

the role

of

_{the moderate}

and _{intelligent ulemas should}

be

promoted' _{Today and in the furure,}

Indonesia _{needs ulemas who are}

capable

of _{empowering and erevating the quarity}

of life of mosrem _{community as to}

promote their starus to be equal to other segment _{of sociery who has achieved}

higher standard _{of living. These leaders}

must be able to interpret jihad _(holy war) in _{term of building and empowering Moslems so}

that they are not left

behind compared _{to other groups or parties.}

4'

Law _{enforcement and police professionalism.}

Law _{enforcement is an essential}

element _{to hamper terrorist acts.}

Indecisiveness and unprofessionalism _{of the}

law enforcers _{and police in handling}

the terrorist acts wilr not onry encourage

terrorist _{acts in Indonesia but will}

also nurhrre _{the sympathetic feeling toward}

the _{terrorists' Sympathy for terrorists}

has been _{growing higher in a number}

of

moslem communities such as _{toward rwo executors}

of

_{the Bari}

Bombing,

Amrozi and Imam Samudera.

5'

As long as the united states and its allies are still perceived _{as arogant and}

hostile toward a number

of

Isramic _{Nations, they}

wilr

aiways become _the object _{and target of terrorism in}

Indonesia. _{The united states and its}

allies

have been widery perceived _{as terorists by many}

Indonesian _{that they are}

likely to be the target _{of attack and the object of}

revenge _{and holy war by}

radical _{Moslem in Indonesia. The}

enemy _{of Islamic Nations because of their brutality againts}

Afghanistan and

Iraqi citizens as well as moslem _{hostages at the United states military prisons.}

Therefore, to prevent _{terrorism in Indonesia targetted to the}

interests of the

united

states and

its

_{allies, Indonesian government need}

to put

_political

pressure to the united states, demanding _{them to impose a more sympathetic}

policy toward the Islamic Nations.

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