UNICEF Indonesia - Resources - Publications

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WORKING TOWARDS PROGRESS WITH

EQUITY UNDER DECENTRALISATION

The Situation of Children and Women in Indonesia 2000-2010

Under Programme of Cooperation of Government of Indonesia – the United Nations Children’s Fund, UNICEF, Indonesia Country Office

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional (BAPPENAS) and UNICEF

Written by : Centre for Population and Policy Studies, Gajah Mada University

Cover photo by : © UNICEF

Graphic design : DESIGNLab

Printed at : Jakarta

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The development of the 2010 national situation analysis (SITAN) on children and women was implemented within the GoI-UNICEF 2006-2010 Programme Cooperation, under the leadership of BAPPENAS/Ministry of National Development Planning. The National Steering Committee of the SITAN was established in 2009; consisting of all related line ministries and government institutions, to supervise and provide guidance on the development processes for the SITAN development.

The SITAN report titled “Working Towards Progress with Equity Under Decentralisation: The Situation of Children and Women in Indonesia 2000-2010” has been prepared by the Center for Population and Policy Studies, Gajah Mada University (PSKK-UGM), under leadership of Prof. Dr. Muhadjir Darwin, MPA, with technical assistance and support from UNICEF Indonesia and other international researchers.

Appreciation and thanks are specifically extended to:

• Dra. Nina Sardjunani, MA for overall supervision of the SITAN process.

• Dr. Arum Atmawikarta, SKM, MPH, Dr. Hadiat, MA, Ir. Yosi Diani Tresna, MPM, Drs Binar

Ginting, MM, Drs Ismail Bama, and national secretariats in BAPPENAS and BANGDA who coordinated the preparation of the data collection for the SITAN, and supervised the process, while also providing final quality assurance for the finalization of the Report.

• Drs. Wynandin Imawan, M.Sc, Arizal Ahnaf, MA and S. Happy Hardjo, M.Ec who contributed by

providing data and information forming the basis of analysis in the SITAN.

Our thanks are also extended to our professional partners their hard work, continuous commitment and dedication on which have contributed to the completion of this report.

• Dr. Saville Kushner; Professor of Public Evaluation, University of West England and Ibunda Yulita Raharjo who developed the conceptual framework for the SITAN development and

supported PSKK in the development of the first draft of the SITAN.

• Dr. Rachael Diprose and Dr. Corinne Caumartin; Research Oficers at Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity (CRISE), Oxford Department of International

Development, University of Oxford who finalized the SITAN, including compiling and analysing data, quality assurance and writing the final report in collaboration with the Gajah Mada University and UNICEF staff.

• Jane H. Patten, MPH, the professional editor who did the inal editing of the inal draft.

The SITAN has also benefited from significant contributions of many others who cannot be

mentioned individually from: BAPPENAS, the Ministry of Home Affairs, the Ministry of Health,

the Ministry of National Education, the Ministry of Social Affairs, the Ministry of Women’s Empowerment and Child Protection, BPS, local government institutions and local researchers in

four provinces (Aceh, Central Java, NTT and Papua), the Center for Health Service Management (Gajah Mada University), Prof. dr. Laksono Trisnantoro, MSc, PhD at the Centre of Health Research

(University of Indonesia), Dr. Sabarinah Prasetyo, MSc, and lastly all UNICEF Indonesia staff who provided passion and commitment in providing and verification of the data and information to ensure the quality of SITAN.

FOREWORD

This Situation Analysis of Children and Women was commissioned and completed as a

contribution to the growing body of knowledge and information on the situation of children and women in Indonesia.

The process of finalising this analysis has been a comprehensive one, reflecting a wide range of consultations, analysis of data and studies/reports, interviews, and focus group discussions. The findings and recommendations build on the Government of Indonesia’s strong commitment

to the realization of children’s rights, to its own Five Year Development Plan – RPJMN – and

other national and international pledges. It also builds on the considerable socio-economic achievements of Indonesia which have had a direct impact on the well-being of its children. In this regard, this particular situation analysis has attempted to be creative and forward-looking for ensuring achievement of the MDGs with equity within Indonesia’s policy environment as a decentralized Middle Income Country.

This situation analysis has also identified some of the remaining challenges faced by children, women, and those with a responsibility for their wellbeing, in ensuring the progress made by the country in the past decade is more evenly distributed and reaches the most marginalized and deprived children of Indonesia.

Anchored by the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, this situation analysis identifies the obligations and potential for action that rest with families, communities, public and private service providers, civil society and government to fully realise the rights of children and women in today’s Indonesia.

We truly hope that many different stakeholders and partners – from government officials at national and sub-national level, to NGO and CSO partners and practitioners, the academic and research community, other UN agencies and international financial institutions, the media, private sector and others – will find this situation analysis relevant and useful, inspiring them to greater and enhanced investment in, and with, the children of Indonesia.

Dra. Nina Sardjunani, MA Angela Kearney

Deputy Minister for Human Resources and Culture Representative UNICEF Indonesia

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4.2.4.2 Challenges to improving mortality rates under the KIA Revolution 211 4.2.4.3 Strategies and innovations to improve food security and nutrition 212 4.2.4.4 Challenges faced by the Food Security and Information Board. 214 4.2.4.5 Strategies to improve coordination: The Food Security Council 215 4.2.4.6 Challenges to implementation: The Food Security Council 215 4.2.4.7 Strategies and innovations:

Increasing the consumption of nutrients in the community 216 4.2.4.8 Challenges for policy implementation in addressing malnutrition

in children and in general 217

4.2.5 Community participation in the planning process: The musrenbang 222

4.2.6 Summary conclusion 224

4.3 Papua: A province with high levels of poverty, low levels of human development, and a large natural resource base in the midst of a low level generalised HIV

and AIDS epidemic 225

4.3.1 Background: Population, economy and human development 226

4.3.1.1 Population and environment 226

4.3.1.2 Brief history 228

4.3.1.3 Economic and human development 228

4.3.2 Education, health, nutrition, and water and sanitation 230

4.3.3 HIV and AIDS prevalence in Papua 233

4.3.4 Contributing factors to the growing rates of HIV infection in

Papua Province 234

4.3.4.1 General overview 234

4.3.4.2 Perceptions of illness, knowledge, and language of communication: The challenges for preventing transmission 239

4.3.4.3 Early age of sexual debut 242

4.3.4.4 Knowledge of reproductive health, safe sex and HIV testing 244

4.3.4.5 Rapid development and the growing sex industry:

Risks for children and women 245

4.3.4.6 Stigma of HIV and AIDS 247

4.3.5 Strategies and challenges of combating HIV and AIDS under Special

Autonomy 247

4.3.5.1 The national policy environment 247

4.3.5.2 The Special Autonomy regulatory environment: A brief overview 248 4.3.5.3 Weaknesses in the regulatory environment and service provision

under Special Autonomy in general 250

4.3.5.4 Local government initiatives and challenges to combating

HIV and AIDS: The scale of the problem within a context

of institution building 257

4.3.5.5 CSO and NGO innovations and challenges 260

4.3.5.6 Recommendations for improving HIV and AIDS prevention 261

4.3.6 Summary conclusion 263

4.4 Improving education in the shadow of conflict and the tsunami: Aceh Province

under Special Autonomy 265

4.4.1 Introduction 265

4.4.1.1 Background to Aceh: Conflict, the tsunami and Special Autonomy 265

4.4.2 Social and economic overview 271

4.4.2.1 Poverty and human development 271

4.4.2.2 Situation of children: Heath, nutrition, water and sanitation 274

4.4.3 Education 275

4.4.3.1 Education overview: Access and efficiency 275

4.4.4 Rebuilding education in Aceh: The challenges of access, quality and

accountability in a culturally sensitive environment. 281

4.4.5 Quality of education and disparities in Aceh 284

4.4.5.1 Financial burden 285

4.4.5.2 Teacher qualification, distribution and teacher welfare 288

4.4.6 Vulnerabilities in Aceh: Education in the shadow of the conflict and

the tsunami. 291

4.4.6.1 Trauma 291

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4.4.7 Education planning, decentralisation and Special Autonomy:

Innovations and challenges 295

4.4.7.1 Education as a development priority 295

4.4.7.2 Musrenbang and community influence over formal education policy 297 4.4.7.3 School-based management and community/practitioner inputs into

education practice 298

4.4.7.4 Other challenges under Special Autonomy: Authority, coordination

and budget allocations in Aceh 300

4.4.8 Summary conclusion 303

4.5 Children living on the street in Central Java Province:

The challenges of child (special) protection 304

4.5.1 Introduction 304

4.5.2 Geography and demography 305

4.5.3 Poverty, human development and gender equity 307

4.5.4 Health, nutrition, water and sanitation, and education 310

4.5.5 Children living on the streets in Central Java 312

4.5.6 Supporting institutional environment for child protection:

Provincial level initiatives 319

4.5.6.1 The Bureau of Women’s Empowerment, Child Protection and

Family Planning 319

4.5.6.2 Innovations 320

4.5.6.3 Challenges 322

4.5.7 Innovations at the district/municipal level:

The Child-Friendly City policy in Surakarta 324

4.5.7.1 District/municipal government initiatives supporting the Child-Friendly City: Integrated Service Units for Surakarta Women and Children (PTPAS) and the Family Welfare Consultation Unit (LK3) 328 4.5.7.2 The beginning of service delivery in the Child-Friendly City:

Halfway houses in Surakarta 330

4.5.7.3 Establishing holistic services in the Child-Friendly City:

Foster homes in Surakarta 332

4.5.7.4 New approaches in Surakarta?: The Corrections Office 333

4.5.8 Other issues in the development planning process for child protection 335

4.5.8.1 Children’s voices in the development planning process in Surakarta 335

4.5.8.2 Budgets for child protection 336

4.5.9 Summary conclusion: Child (special) protection for children living on

the streets in Central Java 337

4.6 The voices of children 338

4.6.1 Introduction 338

4.6.2 Positive approaches to adolescent and child development 338

4.6.3 Child narratives 340

4.6.3.1 Understanding Siti’s story 342

4.6.3.2 Understanding Joko’s story 344

4.6.4 Commonalities in childhood development 344

4.6.5 Policy implications 345

SECTION 5: POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS 347

Introduction 348

5.1 Summary of the 10 recommendations from this SITAN 349

5.1.1 Recommendation 1: Harmonising the national and local level legal

framework in relation to child rights and welfare 349

5.2 Recommendation 2: Mainstreaming the Indonesian Law on Child Protection and other legislation related to child rights and welfare and promoting compliance

in national and local regulations, guidelines, and policies 350 5.3 Recommendation 3: Improving evidence-based policymaking -

Reducing data deficiencies 351

5.4 Recommendation 4: Improving evidence-based policymaking - Producing

biennial thematic SITAN of women and children and other key public documents 355 5.5 Recommendation 5: Strengthening knowledge management, data collection

and analysis systems at the national and local levels 356

5.6 Recommendation 6: Establishing a comprehensive National Child (Special) Protection System to uphold and monitor child rights and welfare as mandated

by the Indonesian Law on Child Protection 358

5.6.1 Service delivery 359

5.6.2 Prevention/behaviour change 360

5.7 Recommendation 7: Promoting equitable development for women and children - Targeting interventions on worst performers to improve poverty reduction,

pro-poor growth and MDGs with equity 361

5.7.1 MDG progress requiring special attention 362

5.7.2 Disparities 362

5.8 Recommendation 8: Strengthening the decentralised system through local level capacity building and support in development planning processes - Improving consultative planning processes, regulations, policy formulation, programme

design and service delivery to be pro-child and pro-women 364

5.8.1 Areas requiring systems strengthening 365

5.8.2 Learning from innovations 367

5.9 Recommendation 9: Advocating the scale up of specific sectoral interventions

to improve child rights and welfare and reduce inequity 369

5.9.1 General for all stakeholders 369

5.9.2 Health and nutrition (and water and sanitation) 370

5.9.3 Education and early childhood development 371

5.9.4 HIV and AIDS 373

5.9.5 Young people 374

5.9.6 Child (special) protection (together with Recommendations 2 and 6 above) 375 5.10 Recommendation 10: Communications for development and to assist with

knowledge building and behavioural change to support other targeted

interventions and improve the situation of women and children in Indonesia 377

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1.1: Government of Indonesia’s assessment of Indonesia’s progress on

selected MDGs 5

Table 1.4.1: Research areas 16

Table 2.2.1: Gross national income per capita 2008, ATLAS method and purchasing power

parity (PPP) of Southeast Asian countries 28

Table 2.2.2: Number of poor people by social indicators, 2007 37

Table 2.3.1: Trends in the human development index (HDI) over time in selected provinces

and national average, Indonesia 1996-2008 41

Table 3.3.1: Pregnant women receiving PMTCT services in 30 districts/municipalities in

19 provinces, Indonesia 2008 and 2009 95

Table 3.3.2: HIV testing and outreach to most at-risk populations, by age, Indonesia 2007 96

Table 3.3.3: Age at first sex by gender and district, Indonesia 2009 98 Table 3.4.1: Percentage of qualified teachers, Indonesia 1999-2005 122 Table 3.5.1: Children aged 5-17 years by type of activity and sex (thousands),

Indonesia 2009 142

Table 4.2.1: Nutritional status, NTT versus Indonesia 2007 196

Table 4.4.2: Indicators of education quality, Aceh 2007-2009 and target for 2012 284

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.3.1: Policy making and policy shaping 13

Figure 2.2.1: Gross domestic product (GDP) growth rates, with and without oil and gas

(per cent), Indonesia 1996-2008 27

Figure 2.2.2: Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, at constant and current market

prices (million IDR), Indonesia 1999-2008 27

Figure 2.2.3: Percentage of poor population (based on P0), poverty gap index, and

poverty severity index over time, Indonesia 1999-2009 31

Figure 2.2.4: Percentage of poor population (based on head-count Index) by area,

Indonesia 1999-2008 36

Figure 2.2.5: Poverty severity index by area, Indonesia 1999-2009 36 Figure 2.2.6: Percentage of population below the poverty line by province,

Indonesia 2009 37

Figure 2.3.1: Gini coefficent over time, Indonesia 1993-2007 39

Figure 2.3.2: Gini coefficient by province, Indonesia 2007 39

Figure 2.3.3: Human development index (HDI) over time, Indonesia 1996-2008 40

Figure 2.3.4: Human development index (HDI) by province, Indonesia 2008 40

Figure 2.3.5: Human development index (HDI) and gender development index (GDI)

over time, Indonesia 2000-2007 41

Figure 2.4.1: Total fertility rate (TFR) over time, Indonesia 1991-2007 42 Figure 2.4.2: Total fertility rate (TFR) by province, Indonesia 2007 43

Figure 2.4.3: Indonesia population distribution, 2009 43

Figure 2.4.4: Dependency ratio ages 0-14 year, 65+ years and total, Indonesia 1961-2050 44 Figure 3.1.1: UNICEF conceptual framework on understanding child malnutrition,

death and disability 50

Figure 3.1.2: Infant mortality rates, under-five mortality rates, and maternal mortality

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Figure 3.1.3: Infant mortality rate (IMR) by province, Indonesia 2007 53 Figure 3.1.4: Under-five mortality rate (U5MR) by province, Indonesia 2007 53 Figure 3.1.5: Infant mortality rate (IMR) and provincial index of IMR disparity over time,

Figure 3.1.6: Under-five mortality rate (U5MR) and provincial index of U5MR disparity

Figure 3.1.7: Infant mortality rate (IMR) by area, Indonesia 1997-2007 55 Figure 3.1.8: Under-five mortality rate (U5MR) by area, Indonesia 1997-2007 55 Figure 3.1.9: Infant mortality rate (IMR) by wealth quintile, Indonesia 2002-2007 55 Figure 3.1.10: Under-five mortality rate (U5MR) by wealth quintile, Indonesia 2002--2007 55

Figure 3.1.11: Causes of under-five deaths, Indonesia 2007 57

Figure 3.1.12: Immediate causes of maternal death: Obstetric complications,

Indonesia 2007 57

Figure 3.1.13: Health coverage along the continuum of care, Indonesia 2007 58

Figure 3.1.14: Percentage of pregnant women receiving at least one antenatal care visit

from a skilled health provider by province, Indonesia 2007 59

from a skilled provider over time, Indonesia 1997-2007 60

from a skilled provider by area, Indonesia 1997-2007 60

from a skilled provider by wealth quintile, Indonesia 2007 60

Figure 3.1.18: Percentage of pregnant women receiving antenatal care visits by number

of visits, Indonesia 1997-2007 60

Figure 3.1.19: Percentage of pregnant women with four antenatal care visits (ANC-4)

by area, Indonesia 1997-2007 61

Figure 3.1.20: Percentage of assisted births, Indonesia 2002-2007 62

Figure 3.1.21: Percentage of births assisted by skilled providers (most qualified persons),

Indonesia 2007 62

Figure 3.1.22: Percentage of women with children under age five who used trained health

personnel during their most recent delivery by area, Indonesia 2000-2008 63

Figure 3.1.23: Percentage of mothers with assisted childbirths, most recent birth by area

and type of assistance, Indonesia 2007 64

Figure 3.1.24: Percentage of births assisted by skilled providers, by wealth quintile,

Indonesia 2007 64

Figure 3.1.25: Percentage of mothers with assisted childbirths, most recent birth by

wealth quintile, Indonesia 2007 64

Figure 3.1.26: Percentage births by place of delivery, Indonesia 2002-2007 66 Figure 3.1.27: Percentage births by place of delivery and by area, Indonesia 2002-2007 66 Figure 3.1.28: Percentage of births by place of delivery and by wealth quintile,

Indonesia 2007 66

Figure 3.1.29: Percentage of post-partum women with postnatal care, Indonesia 2002-2007 67 Figure 3.1.30: Percentage of post-partum women with postnatal care by area,

Figure 3.1.31: Percentage of post-partum women with postnatal care by province,

Indonesia 2007 67

Figure 3.1.32: Percentage of post-partum women with postnatal care by wealth quintile,

Indonesia 2007 68

Figure 3.1.33: Percentage of children under five suffering from wasting, stunting and

underweight, Indonesia 2007 69

Figure 3.1.34: Percentage of children under five suffering from wasting, stunting and

underweight by area, Indonesia 2007 70

Figure 3.1.35: Percentage of children under five suffering from stunting, wasting and

underweight by sex, Indonesia 2007 70

Figure 3.1.36: Percentage of children under five suffering from stunting by expenditure

per capita per month, Indonesia 2007 70

Figure 3.1.37: Percentage of children under five suffering from wasting by expenditure

per capita per month, Indonesia 2007 70

Figure 3.1.38: Percentage of children under five suffering from being underweight

by expenditure per capita per month, Indonesia 2007 70

Figure 3.1.39: Percentage of children under five who are underweight by province,

Indonesia 2007 71

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Figure 3.1.41: Percentage of children under five with wasting by province, Indonesia 2007 72 Figure 3.1.42: Incidence of low birthweight (percentage), Indonesia 1992-2007 73 Figure 3.1.43: Percentage of infants with low birthweight by province, Indonesia 2007 73 Figure 3.1.44: Percentage of infants with low birthweight by area, sex, and expenditure

per capita, Indonesia 2007 73

Figure 3.1.45: Percentage of children under six months by exclusive breastfeeding or

bottle-feeding, Indonesia 2002-2007 75

Figure 3.1.46: Percentage of children who started breastfeeding within one hour of birth

Figure 3.1.47: Percentage of pregnant women who receive iron tablets (≥90 tablets)

by province, Indonesia 2007 77

by area, Indonesia 1997-2007 77

by wealth quintile, Indonesia 2007 77

Figure 3.2.1: Percentage of households with sustainable access to clean water,

Figure 3.2.2: Percentage of households with sustainable access to clean water

by province, Indonesia 2008 85

Figure 3.2.3: Percentage of households with sustainable access to clean water by area,

Indonesia 2008 86

Figure 3.2.4: Index of disparity of access to clean water and sanitation, Indonesia

2000-2008 86

Figure 3.2.5: Percentage of households with sustainable access to adequate sanitation

(pit latrines and septic tanks), Indonesia 2000-2008 87

(pit latrines and septic tanks) by province, Indonesia 2008 88

(pit latrines and septic tanks) by area, Indonesia 2000-2008 88

Figure 3.2.8: Projected changes in percentage of urban and rural populations,

Figure 3.2.9: Slum areas in Indonesia, by hectare (Ha) over time, Indonesia 2004-2009 90

Figure 3.3.1: Cumulative AIDS cases reported over time, Indonesia 2000-2009 91 Figure 3.3.2: HIV trends and projections in Indonesia, 1980-2025 92

Figure 3.3.3: Cumulative AIDS cases by age groups, Indonesia 2000-2009 95 Figure 3.4.1: Early childhood education, 3-6 years old attendance rate over time,

Indonesia 2001-2009 105

Figure 3.4.2: Net attendance in primary school, Indonesia 2000-2008 108 Figure 3.4.3: Net attendance rates in primary school by province, Indonesia 2008 108 Figure 3.4.4: Net attendance rates in primary school by sex, Indonesia 2000-2008 109 Figure 3.4.5: Net attendance rates in primary school by area, Indonesia 2000-2008 109 Figure 3.4.6: Net attendance rates in primary school and index of disparity,

Indonesia 2000-2008 109

Figure 3.4.7: Trend in early school leaving (dropout) rates from public primary schools,

over time, Indonesia 1999/00-2006/07 110

Figure 3.4.8: Public primary school early leaving (dropout) rates by province,

Indonesia 2006/07 111

Figure 3.4.9: Trend in transition rates from primary to junior secondary school,

Indonesia 2005/06-2008/09 111

Figure 3.4.10: Trend in net attendance rates, junior secondary school, Indonesia 2000-2008 112 Figure 3.4.11: Net attendance rate, junior secondary school by province, Indonesia 2008 112 Figure 3.4.12: Net attendance rate, junior secondary school by sex, Indonesia 2000-2008 113 Figure 3.4.13: Net attendance rate, junior secondary school by area, Indonesia 2000-2008 113

Figure 3.4.14: Trend over time and index of provincial disparity of gross attendance rates

for junior secondary school, Indonesia 2000-2008 114

Figure 3.4.15: Trend of early school leaving (dropout) rate for junior secondary school,

Indonesia 1999/00-2006/07 115

Figure 3.4.16: Early school leaving (dropout) rate by province, Indonesia 2006/07 116 Figure 3.4.17: Trend of youth literacy rate (15-24 years), Indonesia 2000-2007 117 Figure 3.4.18: Youth literacy rate (15-24 years) by province, Indonesia 2007 117

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Figure 3.4.20: Adult literacy rate (age 15+ years) by area, Indonesia 2000-2008 118 Figure 3.4.21: MGP-BE good practice replication in non-target schools,

Indonesia 2008-2009 126

Figure 3.5.1: Percentage of children aged 0-59 months whose births have been

registered, Indonesia 2001-2007 129

Figure 3.5.2: Percentage of children aged 0-59 months who have birth certificates

by province, Indonesia 2007 129

Figure 3.5.3: Percentage of births registered by wealth quintile, Indonesia 2007 130 Figure 3.5.4: Percentage of births registered by area, Indonesia 2007 130 Figure 3.5.5: Reason for not registering birth by area, Indonesia 2007 131 Figure 3.5.6: Reason for not registering birth by wealth quintile, Indonesia 2007 132 Figure 3.5.7: Percentage of women 20-24 years old who were married or in union before

the age of 18, Indonesia 2000-2008 139

Figure 3.5.8: Percentage of women 20-24 years old who were married or in union before

the age of 18 by province, Indonesia 2008 139

Figure 3.5.9: Percentage of women 20-24 years old who were married or in union before

the age of 18 years by area, Indonesia 2000-2008 140

Figure 3.5.10: Working children aged 5-17 years, Indonesia 2004-2009 (thousands) 141 Figure 3.5.11: Labour force participation rates of children aged 10-17 years,

Indonesia 2004-2009 142

Figure 3.5.12: Percentage of children aged 5-17 years by type of activity and sex,

Figure 3.5.13: Percentage of working children by age group and total work hours,

Figure 3.5.14: Percentage of working children by industry and age group, Indonesia 2009 144 Figure 3.5.15: Percentage of working children aged 5-17 years by employment status,

Figure 3.5.16: Percentage of working children aged 5-17 years by place of work,

Figure 4.1.1: Transfer of power and authority under decentralisation 171

Figure 4.2.1: East Nusa Tenggara (NTT) location map 183

Figure 4.2.2: Population pyramid, NTT 2005 185

Figure 4.2.3: Percentage of population below the poverty line, NTT versus Indonesia

1999-2009 186

Figure 4.2.4: Percentage of poor population by district, NTT 2008 187

Figure 4.2.5: Trends in development indices, NTT 1999-2007 187

Figure 4.2.6: Percentage of children aged under five suffering from wasting, stunting

and underweight, NTT 2007 193

Figure 4.2.7: Percentage of children aged under five suffering from being underweight,

stunting or wasting, by rural versus urban area, NTT 2007 194

Figure 4.2.8: Trends in prevalence of moderately underweight and severely underweight

children, NTT 1989-2005 195

Figure 4.2.9: Trends in IMR and U5MR, NTT versus Indonesia, 1994-2007 202 Figure 4.2.10: Percentage of births attended by trained heath personnel, NTT 2000-2008 203 Figure 4.2.11: Percentage of children under age two who were immunised, NTT 1994-2007 207 Figure 4.2.12: Trends in access to clean water, NTT versus Total Indonesia 2000-2008 207 Figure 4.2.13: Trends in the proportion of households with sustainable access to adequate

sanitation (ventilated pit latrine and septic tank), NTT, 2000-2008 208

Figure 4.3.1: Map of Papua Province 227

Figure 4.3.2: HDI, GDI, GEM over time, Papua 1999-2007 230

Figure 4.3.3: HDI in selected districts, Papua 2004-2007 230

Figure 4.3.4: Cumulative reported deaths from HIV and AIDS, Papua 2000-2009 233

Figure 4.4.1: Map of Aceh 267

Table 4.4.1: Education budget, Aceh 2002-2009 270

Figure 4.4.2: Flow of funds in Aceh 270

Figure 4.4.3: Percentage of population below the poverty line, Indonesia and Aceh

1999-2009 272

Figure 4.4.4 and 4.4.5: Percentage of population below the poverty line by area (1999-2009)

and by district (2008), Aceh 273

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Figure 4.4.7: Attendance rates among children aged 4-6 years in early childhood

education institutions, Aceh 2003-2007 276

Figure 4.4.8: Net attendance rates for primary school, Indonesia and Aceh 2003-2008 276 Figure 4.4.9: Net attendance rates for primary school by sex, Aceh 2003-2008 276 Figure 4.4.10: Primary school early leaving rates, Aceh 1999-2007 277 Figure 4.4.11: Transition rates to junior secondary school, Aceh 1999-2007 277 Figure 4.4.12: Primary school repeat rate, Indonesia and Aceh 2000-2008 278

Figure 4.4.13: Net attendance rate for junior secondary school 278

Figure 4.4.14: Gender disparities in junior secondary school participation 278 Figure 4.4.15: Trend of junior secondary school early school leaving rate, Aceh 1999-2007 279 Figure 4.4.16: Transition rate to senior secondary school, Aceh 1999-2007 279 Figure 4.4.17: Trend in repeat rates for junior secondary school, Indonesia and Aceh

2000-2009 280

Figure 4.4.18: Net attendance rate of senior secondary school, Aceh 2003-2008 280 Figure 4.4.19: Gross and net senior secondary school attendance rates by sex, Aceh

2003-2008 280

Figure 4.4.20: Type of schools in Banda Aceh and Aceh Timur, 2009 283

Figure 4.5.1: Central Java map 306

Figure 4.5.2: Projected population pyramid, Central Java 2009 307

Figure 4.5.3: Percentage of households living below the national poverty line, Indonesia

and Central Java 1999-2009 308

Figure 4.5.4: Percentage of population below the poverty line by area, Central Java

1999-2009 308

Figure 4.5.5: Human development index (HDI), gender development index (GDI), and

gender empowerment measure (GEM), Central Java 1999-2007 309

Figure 5.8.1: Weaknesses in the development planning process - Inadequate attention

to the needs, priorities and voices of women and children 365

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Within the overall context of Indonesia, this Situation Analysis for Children Report aims to identify, analyse, and explore the available data on the trends and patterns in the major problems affecting children and women in Indonesia over the past decade (2000-2010). It also aims to explore policy initiatives, innovations, and challenges in responding to these problems in the new decentralised governance structures of Indonesia and to provide recommendations for policy makers and practitioners at the national and sub-national levels.

The Situation Analysis comprises five sections: (1) Introduction, (2) Socio-political, Economic and Demographic Context, (3) Analysis of National Indicators on the Situation of Children and

Women (4) Children and Decentralization (with a subsection on Voices of Children) and (5)

Policy Recommendations.

Section 4 focuses on four very different provinces, namely Aceh, Papua, Central Java and East

Nusa Tenggara. For each, an in-depth analysis is conducted on one relevant sector or issue. 1. Aceh: Examining Aceh is useful not only for understanding the vulnerabilities children

and women face and how children respond in a context of complex emergencies, but also for appreciating how large scale interventions to rebuild the province have contributed to enhanced social development. Prior to the tsunami, many education facilities were destroyed as a result of the conflict between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Government of Indonesia (GoI), a situation which was aggravated by the earthquake

and tsunami. This rendered it dificult to guarantee access to education. However, in the

framework of tsunami relief and investment, large scale interventions in the education sector were made following the signature of the peace agreement between the conflict parties in 2005. As a result, the education situation in the province has vastly improved, albeit unevenly at district level. This provides many lessons in policy innovation and identifies the continued challenges for improving disparities in access and quality to education in the province.

2. Central Java: Compared to other provinces, Central Java has on average a higher standard

of living, but its large population, urban and rural poverty mean there are considerable inter-district and inter-income group disparities in terms of child welfare. Rural poverty in the district contributes to the migration of children to urban areas, some of which have ended up living in the streets. The study of children living in the streets, their vulnerabilities, and the policy responses to the problem highlight a number of issues in child (special) protection. They also describe through the pilot of the Child-friendly City of Surakarta how multi-sectoral responses under decentralization have required consistent commitment of the district government to prioritising children in policy formulation,

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3. East Nusa Tenggara (NTT): The long dry season and absence of a large natural resource base mean that the area is prone to drought, food shortages and other challenges to improving child welfare. The institutions delivering public services are in various stages of development and the capacity of personnel to deliver services in such a difficult context is uneven. Examining the case study of malnutrition and health in NTT is appropriate given the economic difficulties, low education levels, customary nutrition practices, and poor access to health services which are prevalent in the province. It also highlights the challenges under decentralization of improving child welfare in the province.

4. Papua: Despite being rich in natural resources, this province faces enormous challenges with limited human capital and a poor human development index. Papua also suffers from

a high prevalence of HIV and AIDS (HIV prevalence: 2.4 per cent) compared to a national prevalence of 0.2 per cent and is classiied as experiencing a generalised epidemic in HIV

and AIDS. This has been exacerbated by migration, resistance to protective measures in sex practices, and difficulties in changing behaviour due to low education and awareness

levels. Papua provides an example of the challenges in combating HIV and AIDS under

decentralization and special autonomy in an economically underdeveloped area and in terms of social welfare and infrastructure/ services in Indonesia.

The Situation Analysis demonstrates that the situation of children and women has been

improving. For some indicators Indonesia is on track to reach the MDGs by 2015 at the national

level (for example in the case of universal primary education). However, the analysis also

highlights that despite these improvements there are many disparities, such as geographic, economic, gender or income group discrepancies, requiring further urgent attention of the Government and its development partners. In particular, the Situation Analysis highlights the need 1) to reduce non-income poverty (Sections 2 and 3), 2) to redress socio-economic and regional disparities (Sections 2 and 3), 3) to improve the uneven capacity to deliver services at the district and provincial level, and 4) to better incorporate the needs and voices of children and women into local level decision-making (Section 4).

The evidence presented in this Situation Analysis suggests that some of Indonesia’s most vulnerable groups continue to live in dire poverty, with poor access to education, health services, social protection, as well as safe and secure living environments (Sections 2 and 3).

However, it also shows, that there are government platforms where these issues are prioritised

and can be further integrated in development planning, for example the Government of

Indonesia’s international commitments, the RPJMN and the National Team for Accelerating

Poverty Reduction. UNICEF and other UN agencies also have a mandate to support the GoI in this regard.

More specifically, analysis in Section 2 clearly illustrates the improvements in economic growth

and poverty reduction over time in Indonesia. However, it also explains that overall poverty

reduction has not been accompanied by equitable social outcomes, with social disparity and inequality being evident between provinces, urban and rural areas, gender and socio-economic groups. Analysis in Section 3 demonstrates that with regard to a range of indicators of child and women’s welfare it is very important to enhance policy attention towards pro-poor growth and improving human development, as well as achieving MDGs with equity. The need of tapping into the current “demographic window” through strengthened systems of governance and public administration is also noted.

Due attention is given to MDGs in that the analysis presented is centred on children and women, but at the same time inter-related analysis of the situation of child protection is also considered. In addition, whilst presenting a large number of indicators that correspond to data aggregated at national level, whenever possible the discussion also focuses on evidence of the profound and multiple disparities and inequalities which characterize Indonesia today.

The section on child protection, or special protection as it is known in Indonesia, is distinct from the first three sections in that it relies less on indicators and aggregate quantitative data for the whole country due to data insufficiencies and more on in-depth case studies including quantitative data as well as qualitative data. This analytical approach attempts to best capture and illustrate the challenges and contradictions that accompany the incipient construction of child protection in Indonesia. Whilst this section is divided into five distinct units, it is important to underline that these five components of the analysis are deeply interrelated; outcomes in one area may affect changes in others. Each part of the analysis also identifies the major changes in policies and initiatives which have been undertaken in relation to the themes of this section, although the discussion is not exhaustive given the rapidly changing policy and regulatory environment in Indonesia. Reference to these changes is made in relation to decentralization, while they are further discussed in the sub-national analysis of Section 4. Section 4 builds on some of the challenges identified in Section 2 with regard to

decentralization. These include namely: (1) building the uneven capacity of the district and provincial level arms of the Government to be able to design and administer local-level policies and regulations, (2) improving the quality and performance of the civil service at the sub-national level, (3) the complexities of designing and passing necessary regulations etc. at the provincial and district level to support policies and programmes, and (4) ensuring the even spread of quality of service delivery and assistance. It aims to examine the sub-national context from different perspectives through the four case studies, as mentioned above. These serve as examples of the policy innovations and constraints under decentralization in relation to the resources available and institutional capacity to deliver services and the particular vulnerabilities prevalent in different provinces. These are not exhaustive sectoral reviews but rather aim to elucidate the views of decision-makers and practitioners on issues affecting children’s rights and welfare.

Section 4.6, focuses on the Voices of Children and demonstrates that young people do not

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SECTION 1:

INTRODUCTION

The Situation Analysis ends in Section 5 with the below key ten recommendations provided in summary.

Recommendation 1. Harmonising the national and local level legal framework.

Recommendation 2. Mainstreaming the Indonesian Child Protection Law and other

legislation related to child rights and welfare and promoting compliance in national and local regulations, guidelines, and policies.

Recommendation 3. Improving evidence-based policing making: Reducing data deficiencies. Recommendation 4. Improving evidenced-based policy making and monitoring:

Strengthening knowledge management, data collection and analysis systems at the national and local level.

Recommendation 5. Improving evidenced-based policy making: Producing biennial thematic SITAN of women and children and other key public documents.

Recommendation 6. Establishing a comprehensive National Child (Special) Protection System to uphold and monitor child rights and welfare as mandated by the Indonesian Child Protection Law.

Recommendation 7. Promoting equitable development for women and children: Targeting interventions on worst performers to improve poverty reduction, pro-poor growth, and MDGs with equity.

Recommendation 8. Strengthening the decentralised system through local level capacity building and support in development planning processes: improving consultative planning processes, regulations, policy formulation, programme design, and service delivery to be pro-child and pro-women.

Recommendation 9. Advocating the scale up specific sectoral interventions to improve child rights and welfare and reduce inequity.

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1.1 BACKGROUND

The Republic of Indonesia forms a vast archipelago covering three time zones between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It is the world’s fourth most populous country, with an estimated population of 237.6 million in 2010, a figure which, despite declining fertility levels, has grown on average by around 3 million people or 1.49 per cent of the population each year.1_Indonesia is a country of some 300 ethnic groups scattered across 17,508 islands, with approximately ten islands holding the bulk of the population.2_{The largest ethnic group, the Javanese, are}

mainly situated on the island of Java, and account for almost half of Indonesia’s population.3 The majority of the population (85.2 per cent) is Muslim, making Indonesia the country with the largest population of Muslims in the world.4_{Nevertheless, there are substantial populations of}

the different denominations of Christianity, Buddhists, Hindus, and others.5_{In 2010, the country} had 31 provinces (and two special regions) within its borders at various stages of economic development.6_{In 2005, the World Bank ranked Indonesia amongst those countries with} lower-middle income status.

In this environment of social diversity, this Situation Analysis Report (SITAN) aims to identify, analyse and explore the available data on the trends and patterns in the major problems affecting children and women in Indonesia over the past decade (2000-2010). In a marked departure from past SITAN, it also aims to explore policy initiatives, innovations, and challenges in responding to these problems in the new decentralised governance structures in Indonesia. The SITAN and its recommendations should serve as a policy, programme and advocacy tool for policymakers and practitioners, locally, nationally and internationally.

Although traditionally SITANs are carried out every five years, this is the first SITAN conducted since 2000 owing to the challenges that the Government of Indonesia (GoI) and UNICEF were facing in the middle of the last decade in responding to the devastating effects of the Indian Ocean tsunami in Aceh and surrounding areas, which occurred in December 2004. At the same time, the GoI, with the support of UNICEF, was also compiling the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) report, which provided an interim situation analysis of the changes in the situation of women and children in the country.

In the years following the tsunami, earthquakes and other natural disasters occurred in other

parts of the country including West Java, Padang and Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta (or D.I.

Yogyakarta, to be referred to only as ‘Yogyakarta’ throughout the remainder of this report). These

disasters, and the massive social upheaval in Indonesia which preceded them at the onset of the new millennium, have made improving the situation of women and children in such a large and diverse country a significant challenge. Escalating poverty levels following the Asian financial crisis in 1997, as well as political instability, and sporadic outbreaks of violence during the political restructuring of the county through democratisation and decentralisation (discussed further in Sections 2 and 4), characterised the first half of the decade. These circumstances, coupled with the natural disasters mentioned above, have created both obstacles and opportunities within which policymakers and practitioners have sought to improve the situation of women and children in Indonesia.

1 Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) – Statistics Indonesia (October 2010) Laporan bulanan: Data sosial ekonomi, Vol.5, BPS: Jakarta. This igure is

based on estimations from the 2010 Census.

2 Government of Indonesia (2010) available at: http://www.indonesia.go.id/en - Republic of Indonesia (Last accessed 5 October 2010) 3 Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) – Statistics Indonesia (2010) available at www.bps.go.id (Last accessed 10 October 2010)

4 Government of Indonesia (2010) available at http://www.indonesia.go.id/en (Last accessed 10 October 2010) 5 Ibid.

6 Ibid.

The last SITAN (2000) portrayed the situation of children in the period of political transformation from authoritarianism to democratisation following 32 years of the New Order government under President Suharto. Prior to the financial crisis of 1997, Indonesia experienced a long period of remarkable economic growth (see Section 2), which saw some improvements in education, health, infrastructure development and poverty levels. The situation unwound, however, with the multiple political, fiscal, and economic crises in the late 1990s, which saw devastating effects for much of the Indonesian population, but for women and children in particular. The data presented in this SITAN demonstrate how recovering from these crises has been a slow process that has continued throughout the best part of the last ten years, and that improvements have not always been achieved with equity for the poor. The financial crisis, although devastating, created an opportunity for revising traditional poverty reduction strategies. The GoI introduced a range of measures in the form of health and education social safety net programmes, as well as cash and conditional cash transfer programmes, to offset the worst impacts of the crisis for the poor, and in particular for children.

This SITAN (2010) demonstrates that despite the state of instability in which Indonesia found itself in 2000, the situation of women and children in Indonesia has been improving, and that for some indicators (measured nationally) Indonesia is on track to reach the MDGs by 2015. For example, Indonesia is well on the way to achieving universal primary education (see Table 1.1.1 for an overview of the GoI’s assessment of its progress on selected indicators for MDGs 1-7), and the challenge now remaining is to improve education quality (see Sections 3.4 and Section 4.4). On other indicators, such as the Maternal Mortality Ratio, there is still much work to be done.7 The analysis in this SITAN also highlights that despite these aggregate improvements, in many sectors there are wide geographic, economic, gender, income group, and other disparities in the improvements of the situation of women and the 83.6 million children and young people8_in Indonesia. This requires urgent attention from government, donor, and civil society policymakers and programmers, to work towards achieving MDGs and progress with equity. Indonesia’s greatest challenges in the future, this SITAN argues, are:

• Reducing non-income poverty (see Sections 2 and 3);

• Redressing socio-economic and regional disparities (see Sections 2 and 3);

• Improving the uneven capacity to deliver services at present at the district and provincial level

under decentralisation (see Section 4);

• Better incorporating the needs and voices of women and children into local level strategies,

regulations, action plans, budgets, programmes and impacts (Section 4).

The evidence presented in this SITAN suggests that some of Indonesia’s most vulnerable groups continue to live in dire poverty, with poor access to education, health services, social protection, as well as safe and secure living environments (see Sections 2 and 3). There are, however, platforms within which tackling such disparities can be prioritised in development policymaking. The GoI, through the ratification of many human rights instruments, under its rights-based and empowerment-based poverty reduction strategy, and in its current National Medium-Term Development Plan (Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Nasional, RPJMN 2010-2014), has a mandate to protect the vulnerable and redress inequalities. Recognising the

7 Note that while the infant mortality rate (IMR) indicator is on track according to the GoI summary on its progress towards achieving MDGs, it is based on progress where the baseline is set at 1990. In the case that the baseline is set at 2000, far less progress has been achieved with only a two-point reduction in the under-five mortality rate and a one-point reduction in the IMR – see Section 3. 8 Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) – Statistics Indonesia (August 2010) Trends of the selected socio-economic indicators of Indonesia, August

2010, BPS: Jakarta, available at: http://www.bps.go.id/65tahun/Boklet_Agustus_2010.pdf (Last accessed 15 October 2010). Note: This

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problem of poverty and disparities in Indonesia, the GoI has also created the National Team for Accelerating Poverty Reduction (TNP2K, Tim Nasional Percepatan Penanggulangan Kemiskinan),

chaired by the vice president.9_{The purpose of the inter-ministerial National Team is to develop an} overarching policy framework that has the long-term goal of speeding up poverty reduction and reducing the impact of shocks and stresses on the poor and vulnerable.10_{In the medium-term, the} goal is to improve the quality of policy advice and to unite all of the GoI’s social assistance and poverty programmes.11_{The National Team will design and oversee social assistance and poverty} reduction programmes, while consolidating, simplifying, and improving the efficiency of existing programmes.12

The National Team will also identify important but troubled social protection programmes and resolve their implementation problems.13_{They will look to create synergies in poverty alleviation} activities across ministries.14_{United Nations agencies such as UNICEF, under the Human Rights}

Based Approach (HRBA), also have the mandate and the commitment to continue seeking to

improve the situation of the most marginalised and disadvantaged; groups that are identified throughout this SITAN report. As such, there is considerable policy space to work with the GoI at the national and sub-national level to improve the situation of vulnerable and disadvantaged women and children in Indonesia.

9 Presidential Regulation (Peraturan Presiden) No. 15/2010 on Accelerating Poverty Reduction formed an inter-ministerial task force 10 See also the Tim Nasional Percepatan Penanggulangan Kemiskinan (TNP2K) website available at:

http://tnp2k.wapresri.go.id/berita/10-siaran-pers/258-press-release.html (Last accessed 15 October 2010) 11 Ibid.

12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid.

Table 1.1.1: Government of Indonesia’s assessment of Indonesia’s progress on selected MDGs

MDGs GOAL STATUS

Goal 1. Eradicate Extreme Poverty And Hunger

Target 1A: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than US$1 (PPP) a day 1. Proportion of population below US$1 (PPP) per day Achieved 2. Poverty gap ratio (incidence x depth of poverty) On track Target 1B: Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people 3. Proportion of own-account and contributing family workers in total employment On track Target 1C: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger

4. Prevalence of underweight children under five years of age On track 5. Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption Needs special attention Goal 2. Achieve Universal Primary Education

Target 2A: Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling

6. Net enrolment rate in primary school (NER) On track 7. Proportion of pupils starting Year 1 who complete primary school On track 8. Literacy rate for the 15-24 year age group On track Goal 3. Promote Gender Equality And Empower Women

Target 3A: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015

9. Ratio of girls to boys in primary schools Achieved 10. Ratio of girls to boys in junior high schools Achieved 11. Ratio of girls to boys in senior high schools On track 12. Ratio of girls to boys in higher education On track 13. Literacy ratio of women to men in the 15-24 year age group Achieved 14. Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector On track 15. Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament On track Goal 4. Reduce Child Mortality

Target 4A: Reduce by two thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate

16. Under-five mortality rate per 1,000 live births On track 17. Infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births On track 18. Neonatal mortality rate per 1,000 live births On track 19. Proportion of one-year-old children immunized against measles On track Goal 5. Improve Maternal Health

Target 5A: Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio

20. Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) Needs special attention 21. Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel (%) On track Target 5B: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health

22. Current contraceptive use among married women aged 15-49 years, any method On track 23. Adolescent birth rate (per 1,000 women aged 15-19 years) On track 24. Antenatal care coverage (at least one visit) On track 25. Antenatal care coverage (at least four visits) On track 26. Unmet need for family planning Needs special attention Goal 6. Combat HIV and AIDS, Malaria And Other Diseases

Target 6A: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV and AIDS

27. HIV and AIDS Prevalence among total population (per cent) Needs special attention

28. Proportion of married population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct

knowledge of HIV and AIDS Needs special attention

29. Proportion of unmarried population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive

correct knowledge of HIV and AIDS Needs special attention

Target 6B: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV and AIDS for all those who need it 30. Proportion of population with advanced HIV infection with access to

antiretroviral drugs Needs special attention

Target 6C: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases

31. Incidence rate associated with malaria (per 1,000) On track 32. Proportion of children under age five sleeping under insecticide-treated

mosquito nets Needs special attention

Goal 7. Ensure Environmental Sustainability

Target 7C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation 33. Proportion of households with sustainable access to an improved water source,

urban and rural Needs special attention

34. Proportion of households with sustainable access to basic sanitation, urban

and rural Needs special attention

Target 7D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers 35. Proportion of urban population living in slums Needs special attention

Source : Ministry of National Development Planning (BAPPENAS). Report on the Achievement of the Millennium Development Goals Indonesia 2010.