REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Grammar
Palmer (1976:146) defines that grammar is a field of involves all the various things that make up the rules of language. “Grammar and rules” is, of course, probably the most common association, and in pedagogy, grammar rules certainly have their places. For one thing, they often provide students with security, something to hold onto. They provide useful guidance about how language is structured. However, there are limits to their usefulness. For one thing, they deal mostly with appropriateness of use. They are signals to correct the statement that “grammar has to do with rules”. Subfields of linguistics that are considered a part of grammar include
One of grammar’s studies is verb. Biber, Conrad, and Leech (2002:103) state that there are three kinds of verbs, such as lexical verb, auxiliary verb and primary verb. From those three kinds of verbs, lexical verbs are the most common and often occur as multi-word units. Biber, Conrad, and Leech (2002:123) state that there are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word or words. The main category of multi-word verbs consists of phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs and phrasal- prepositional verb.
meaning (explode) beyond the original dictionary definitions of its parts. The word
up is not being used as a preposition here or to signify a direction.
Prepositional verbs contain of a lexical verb followed by a preposition, such as, talk about, look at, said to, and bases on. There are two major structural patterns for prepositional verbs:
Pattern 1: NP + verb + preposition+ NP, for examples: (1). He always talks about [it].
(2). She looks at me.
Pattern 2: NP + verb+ NP + preposition + NP, for examples: (1). He said farewell to [us] on this very spot.
(2). But McGaughy bases his prediction on [first-hand experience].
Phrasal-prepositional verbs contain both an adverbial particle and a preposition, as in look forward to, get out of, and hand over to. There are two major structural patterns:
Pattern 1: NP + verb + particle + preposition + NP, for examples: (1). Oh I shall look forward to [this now].
(2). Perhaps I can get out of [it] without having to tell her anything. Pattern 2: NP + verb + NP + particle + preposition + NP, for example:
(1). I could hand him over to [Sadiq].
The term phrasal verb is commonly applied to define verb plus particle constructions which has a single semantic unit. This semantic unit cannot be understood based on the meanings of the individual parts in isolation, but rather it must be taken as a whole. Many grammarians also define phrasal verbs which are drawn below:
2.2.1 The Definition of Phrasal Verbs
• Murcia (1983:265) states that traditional grammarians define a phrasal verb
as a verb followed by a particle (variously described as a preposition, an adverb, or some combination of the two).
• Biber, et.al (2002:124) say phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by an
adverbial particle.
• Wishon and Burks (1980:319) state phrasal verbs are combinations of verb
plus particles that regularly occur together. They usually have a meaning of their own different from that of either of the component parts. They are essentially new verbs.
• Greenbaun and Quirk (2003:336) state one common type of multi-word verb
is phrasal verb consisting of a verb plus an adverb particle.
• Gray (2004:129) says phrasal verbs are combinations of verbs and particles.
Common particles include in, on, off, up, down, and out. Verb + particle combinations carry their own meanings.
• Vlad (1998:93) describes phrasal verbs as combinations of a lexical verb and
• Heaton (1985:103) considers that phrasal verbs are compound verbs that
result from combining a verb with an adverb or a preposition, the resulting compound verb being idiomatic.
2.2.2 Characteristics of Phrasal Verbs
According to Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002:124-126) explains that the meanings and structures of phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, and free combinations differ in many ways. One way to distinguish them by defining characteristics of phrasal verb, namely whether or not there is an idiomatic meaning and whether or not particle movement is possible.
The nature of a multi-word expression is determined by whether or not there is a following noun phrase. When there is no following noun phrase (e.g. shut up or go away), there are only two possible interpretations. It must be either an intransitive phrasal verb, or free combination of verb + adverb. If there is a following noun phrase (e.g. find out the meaning), there are three possible interpretations. Either it is a transitive phrasal verb, a transitive prepositional verb, or a free combination of verb + adverbial prepositional phrase.
1. An idiomatic meaning
and the adverb have separate meanings in free combinations like come back, go back, go in, look back.
1. Intransitive phrasal verbs
In intransitive phrasal verbs, there is no noun or noun phrase which places as object. But as usual phrasal verbs, they have idiomatic meanings, for example:
(1a). Shut up you fool!
(1b). Come on! Tell us then!
2. Intransitive free combinations
In intransitive free combinations, there is no noun or noun phrase which follows the free combinations and they still retain their own meaning, for example:
(2a). Come back, or I’ll fire. (2b). He was afraid to look back. 2. Particle movement
When the object of a transitive phrasal verb is a pronoun, the adverbial particle is almost always after the object, such as in the following examples:
1). I’ll pick them 2). So I
up.
got it
Particle movement is not possible with prepositional verbs. Instead, the particle (actually, a preposition) always comes before the noun phrase that is the object, such as in the following examples:
back.
1). Well those kids are waiting for
<compare: *Well those kids are
their bus.
waiting their bus 2). It was hard to
for.>
look at
<compare: *It was hard to him.
their being close to the root.
depends their being close on
to the root.>
According to Greenbaun and Quirk (2003:340), there are other characteristics to define phrasal verb:
1. The particle of a prepositional verb must precede the prepositional object (unless the particle is stranded), but the particle of a phrasal verb can generally precede or follow the direct object, such as in the following examples:
(1a). She called on her friends.
Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with the particle precedes the prepositional object.
(1b). *She called her friends on.
(2a). She called up her friends.
Sentence (2a) is example of phrasal verb with the particle precedes the object) (2b). She called her friends up.
Sentence (2b) is example of phrasal verb with the particle follows the object.
2. When the object is a personal pronoun, the particle precedes the personal pronoun in a prepositional verb, but it follows the personal pronoun in phrasal verbs, such as in the following examples:
(1a). She called on them.
Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with particle precedes the personal pronoun.
(1b). *She called them on.
Sentence (1b) is not prepositional verb because the particle cannot follow the personal pronoun of prepositional verb.
(2a). She called them up.
Sentence (2a) is example of phrasal verb with particle follows the personal pronoun. (2b). *She called up them
Sentence (2b) is not phrasal verb because the particle cannot precede the personal pronoun of phrasal verb.
3. An adverb (functioning adjunct) can often be inserted between verb and particle in prepositional verbs, but not in phrasal verbs, such as in the following examples: (1a). She called angrily on her friends.
(1b). *She called angrily up her friends.
Sentence (1b) is not phrasal verb because an adverb cannot be inserted between verb and particle.
4. The particle of a phrasal verb cannot precede a relative pronoun or wh-interrogative, such as in the following examples:
(1a). The friends on whom she called.
Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with particle precedes relative pronoun.
(1b). *The friends up whom she called.
Sentence (1b) is not phrasal verb because particle cannot precede the relative pronoun.
(2a). On which friends did she call?
Sentence (2a) is example of prepositional verb with particle precedes relative pronoun in interrogative sentence.
(2b). *Up which friends did she call?
Sentence (2b) is not phrasal verb because particle cannot precede the relative pronoun.
2.2.3 Types of Phrasal Verbs
According to Greenbaun and Quirk (1973), or Veres (1998) or Vlad (1998), phrasal verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive phrasal verbs.
1. Intransitive phrasal verb
a). The children were sitting down. b). The plane has now taken off. c). Go off to bed now.
Heaton (1985) claims that normally, the particle cannot be separated from its verb (Drink quickly up); though particles used as intensifiers or perfectives or referring to direction can be modified by intensifiers (Go right on).
2. Transitive phrasal verb
Transitive verb is a verb that takes both a subject and an object. Therefore, phrasal verbs are transitive when they take an object, for examples:
a). We will set up a new unit. b). Drink up your milk
c). He looked up his former friends.
According to Veres (1998) the pattern of transitive phrasal verbs is: verb + adverbial particle + object (VAO), for examples
a). Turn down the radio! (reduce the volume)
b). How shall I not back up my best friend? (support).
According to Greenbaun and Quirk (1973:122) and Veres (1998:87) provides that VAO order is used:
1. When the object is long.
E.g. You have to put off your plan of removing her to another hospital.
2. When the object is an –ing clause E.g. He went on speaking. 3. In fixed phrases
4. When the verb phrase is strongly idiomatic. E.g. We made out a sturdy man.
But VAO order is also possible: a. With many phrasal verbs.
E.g. Turn the radio down!
b.When the direct object is a pronoun or a proper name (the pronominal direct object always precede the adverbial particle.)
E.g. They brought him up with much care and love. (educate).
If the phrasal verb is transitive, the pattern will include N, PRON, or REFL. There are 4 patterns of transitive phrasal verbs that are possible used:
1. Pattern V+ N+ ADV
In this pattern, the verb has an object (N), and the object comes before the adverb (ADV).
E.g. They pay half of their income in rent out. 2. Pattern V+ ADV+ N
In this pattern, the verb also has an object (N), and that the object comes after the adverb (ADV).
E.g. First, add up all your regular payments. 3. Pattern V+ PRON+ ADV
In this pattern, the verb must have an object which can be a personal pronoun (PRON), and that the object comes before the adverb (ADV).
4. Pattern V+ REFL+ ADV
In this pattern, the verb has an object which must be a reflexive pronoun (REFL), and that the object must come before the adverb (ADV). E.g. I shut myself away in a library that night and wrote a letter.
(Collins Dictionary, VI).
In answering the problem about types of phrasal verbs found in this novel. The writer uses the theories from Greenbaun and Quirk (1973) and also Collins (1991)
2.3 Particles
Particle is a function word that does not belong to one of the main classes of words, (such as noun, pronouns, and verbs) but has grammatical purpose. As a function word, we can see the functions of particle in phrasal verbs to give more meaning to the verb. Further explanations of particles will be drawn below:
2.3.1 Word Classes of Particle
Olteanu (2012:33) states that due to the double nature of phrasal verbs, that is sometimes adverbial and sometimes prepositional, this section proposes an overview on the matter of word classes of particles.
If the particle is a preposition, a noun group follows it. This noun group is called a prepositional object.
1). move off is labeled V+ ADV: The fleet of cars prepared to move off. 2). rely on is labeled V+ PREP: She is forced to rely on her mother's money. There are cases in which the particle can be used either as an adverb or as preposition, for examples:
1a). came in is labeled V+ ADV: Jeremy came in looking worried. (The particle ‘in’ is used as an adverb).
1b). come in is labeled V+ PREP: Come in the house, she said. (The particle ‘in’ is used as a preposition). (Collins Dictionary, VII).
2.3.2 Positioning of particles
When the phrasal verb is transitive, it is important to know where to put the particle in relation to the object: does the particle come between the verbs or does it follow the verb?
The patterns for transitive phrasal verbs indicate the order of elements. For example, the pattern V+ ADV + N shows that the particle is situated between the verb and its object: E.g. I was cleaning out my desk at the office.
If the pattern is V+ N+ ADV, the particle is positioned after the object. E.g.: I spent three days cleaning our flat out. Clean out is a phrasal verb in which a particle can come in front or after the object, but there are some phrasal verbs that have only one pattern. For example put up, which is labeled V+ ADV+ N: We had
put up a fierce struggle.
2.3.3 The function of particles
Particles have function as adverbs to modify the verbs with which they are associated. In accordance with the statement, Heaton (1985:112) notes that although most adverbial particles have the same form as their corresponding prepositions they do not denote a relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word, functioning as adverbs. The following examples illustrate them.
a). In the first of the sentences below, downfunctions as an adverbial particle, while in the second sentence downis a preposition.
E.g. Peter ran downas he saw me waiting.
Peter randownthe stairs as soon as he saw me waiting
b). In the next two sentences, offfunctions first as an adverbial particle and then as a preposition:
E.g. She took off her coat.
She took her coat off the hook.
In the first sentence, off shows the direction in which she moved the coat, while off in the second sentence indicates the relationship between coat and hook.
The function of onis also taken into consideration by Heaton: E.g. Peter turned on the boastful youth and struck him.
In this sentence, on is a preposition and shows the relation between the boastful youth and the verb turned. The boastful youth is the object of the preposition on, not of the verb turned.
E.g. John turned the tap on.
John turned on the hot- water tap.
d). The following example illustrates how slight the difference frequently is between prepositions and adverbial particles. In both sentences, through functions as an adverbial particle modifying the verb read. In the second sentence, however, throughcould easily be confused in function with a preposition.
E.g. I have read your essay through and think it is good. I have read through your essay and think that it is good.
Heaton (1985:114) considers that adverbial particles differ from other adverbs in certain ways. Most of them are best regarded as helping to form a new verb, for they change or add to the meaning of the verb, however slightly. Thus, the particle is really an integral part of the phrasal verb, separable often in word- order but nevertheless constituting a single unit. Heaton proposes five ways in which most particles function:
1). Many cause a verb to assume a new or subsidiary meaning, for examples: a. The widow carried on as if nothing had happened.
b. I'm done for (warned out).
c. Long dresses have gone outthese years (ceased to be fashionable).
2). Some particles assume a new or special meaning with a verb but do not change the normal meaning of that verb, for examples:
a. He talked down to his pupils. b. Speak out ('loudly')
3). Other particles provide stress emphasis or a sense of completion, for examples: a. Let me finish this off before.
b.Hurry up or we shall be late
4). Other function in a similar way to ordinary adverbs, helping to form a collocation which maintains a literal meaning, for examples:
a. She got in her car and drove away without speaking. b. She decided to go outand see her.
c. He jumped upas soon as I entered
5). A number are similar in function to prepositions. Although they are linked to the verb and conform to the same rules of word order as other adverbial noun, a noun equivalent following them is often understood, (though not expressed), for examples:
a. Take your hat off. (your head)
b. She came down (the stairs) to greet the guests.
Heaton (1985:116) states that consequently, the phrasal verb must be taken as a unit because its meaning can rarely be inferred from the knowledge of the verb and the particle separately.
In answering the problem about function of particle in phrasal constructions, the writer applies this theory.
2.4 Semantic distinction
Fraser (1976) and others have pointed out that phrasal verbs exhibit interesting semantic differences. Fraser, for example, divides them into three groups.
1. Literal phrasal verbs
Literal phrasal verbs are those items where the particle retains its literal adverbial meaning as the up does in the following example:
a). I hung up the pictures on the wall.
b). Mariam had climbed a chair and taken down her mother’s Chinese tea set.
Some other examples of literal phrasal verbs are: sit down, dish out, hand out, and take down. These phrasal verbs are among the easiest for nonnative speakers to understand and acquire.
2. Completive phrasal verbs
Completive phrasal verbs are those the particle indicates completed action. The particles up, out, off,and down all seem to be used this way; however, upis the one most frequently used in this function. The adverbial particle is added to emphasize that the action should start, and continue until the action is completed. For example:
a). I tore upthe piece of paper. b). The radio turned off.
Some other completive phrasal verbs: mix up, wind up, wear out, fade out, burn down, run down, cut off, turn off, etc.
3. Figurative phrasal verbs
a). She looked up the information. b). The Lights came on.
Some other figurative phrasal verbs are turn up (arrive, appear), catch on (understand), give in (surrender); look over (review), etc. Such phrasal verbs are the most difficult ones for ESL/EFL students to master.
