The cultural struggle experienced by Japanese people as reflected in Natsume Soseki`s five short stories in Spring Miscellany - USD Repository

(1)

THE CULTURAL STRUGGLE EXPERIENCED BY JAPANESE PEOPLE AS REFLECTED IN NATSUME SOSEKI’S FIVE SHORT STORIES

IN SPRING MISCELLANY

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Agung Tri Haryanta Student Number: 041214056

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

(2)

ii

A Thesis on

THE CULTURAL STRUGGLE EXPERIENCED BY JAPANESE PEOPLE AS REFLECTED IN NATSUME SOSEKI’S FIVE SHORT STORIES

IN SPRING MISCELLANY

By

Agung Tri Haryanta Student Number: 041214056

Approved by

Sponsor

(3)

iii

A Thesis on

THE CULTURAL STRUGGLE EXPERIENCED BY JAPANESE PEOPLE AS REFLECTED IN NATSUME SOSEKI’S FIVE SHORT STORIES

IN SPRING MISCELLANY

By

AGUNG TRI HARYANTA Student Number: 041214056

Defended before the Board of Examiners On 9 June 2011

and Declared Acceptable

Board of Examiners

Chairperson : C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd. ____________

Secretary : Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd., M.Pd. ____________

Member : Dr. A. Herujiyanto, M.A. ____________

Member : L. Suharjanto, S.J., S.S., B.S.T., M.A. ____________

Member : Henny Herawati, S.Pd., M.Hum. ____________

Yogyakarta, 9 June 2011

Faculty of Teachers Training and Education Sanata Dharma University

Dean,

(4)

iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY

I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work

or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the

references, as a scientific paper should.

Yogyakarta, 9 June 2011

The Writer

Agung Tri Haryanta

(5)

v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Agung Tri Haryanta

Nomor Mahasiswa : 041214056

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

THE CULTURAL STRUGGLE EXPERIENCED BY JAPANESE PEOPLE AS REFLECTED IN NATSUME SOSEKI’S FIVE SHORT STORIES

IN SPRING MISCELLANY

beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal: 9 Juni 2011

Yang menyatakan,

(6)

vi ABSTRACT

Haryanta, Agung Tri. (2011). The Cultural Struggle Experienced by Japanese People as Reflected in Soseki Natsume’s Five Short Stories in Spring Miscellany. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

This study discusses Soseki Natsume’s short stories “The Persimmons”, “The Human Being”, “Mona Lisa”, “The Kakemono”, and “The Voice” in his book Spring Miscellany.

This study aims to explain the meaning of cultural struggle through human isolation in those short stories. There are two question to answer, namely (1) “How is human isolation described in Soseki’s five short stories; ‘The Persimmons’, ‘The Human Being’, ‘Mona Lisa’, ‘The Kakemono’, and ‘The Voice’?”, (2) “How is human isolation reflected in Soseki’s real life?”

There are two sources used in this study, namely primary and secondary sources. The primary source is the five short stories. The secondary sources are the references from books which support and relate to this study. The approaches used in this study are biographical approach which refers to the life of Soseki Natsume and sociocultural-historical approach which refers to the background during which the short stories were written.

There are several findings of the analysis of this study. First, human isolation could be in many forms and people have their own view towards it. It is revealed that some people perceive it as a burden while others hold on to it to achieve something better. This can be seen in Soseki Natsume’s five short stories which describe the daily life of Japanese people during Meiji period.

Second, Soseki Natsume lived during Meiji period where there were massive changes in culture, social, politics, and economy. These changes took Western culture as the reference and had created many conflicts in the society.

The cultural struggle experienced by Japanese people during Meiji period has led the country to modernism and successfulness. The changes in culture, social, politic, and economy have created a strong foundation for Japan to develop the country further.

(7)

vii ABSTRAK

Haryanta, Agung Tri. (2011). The Cultural Struggle Experienced by Japanese People as Reflected in Soseki Natsume’s Five Short Stories in Spring Miscellany. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Penelitian ini mendiskusikan tentang cerita pendek karya Natsume Soseki yang berjudul, “The Persimmons”, “The Human Being”, “Mona Lisa”, “The Kakemono”, dan “The Voice” di dalam bukunya Spring Miscellany.

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjelaskan makna dari perjuangan budaya melalui isolasi manusia di dalam cerita pendek-cerita pendek tersebut. Terdapat dua pertanyaan yang akan akan dijawab, yaitu (1) “Bagaimanakah isolasi manusia didiskripsikan di dalam cerita pendek Soseki; ‘The Persimmons’, ‘The Human Being’, ‘Mona Lisa’, ‘The Kakemono’, dan ‘The Voice’?”, (2) “Bagaimanakah isolasi manusia digambarkan di kehidupan Soseki yang sebenarnya?”

Terdapat dua sumber data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini, yaitu sumber data primer dan sekunder. Sumber data primer adalah kelima cerita pendek tersebut. Sumber data sekunder adalah referensi dari buku-buku yang mendukung dan berhubungan dengan penelitian ini. Pendekatan yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah pendekatan riwayat hidup (biografi), yang mengacu kepada kehidupan Soseki Natsume, dan pendekatan sosialbudaya-sejarah, yang mengacu kepada latar belakang disaat cerita pendek tersebut ditulis.

Ada beberapa penemuan pada analisa penelitian ini. Pertama, isolasi manusia dapat berwujud dalam berbagai bentuk dan manusia memiliki pandangannya sendiri terhadapnya. Di dalam penelitian ini, terungkap bahwa beberapa orang menganggapnya sebagai beban sementara yang lain memegang teguh untuk meraih sesuatu yang lebih baik. Hal ini dapat dilihat pada kelima cerita pendek Soseki Natsume yang menggambarkan kehidupan sehari-hari masyarakat Jepang selama periode Meiji.

Kedua, Soseki Natsume hidup selama periode Meiji dimana terdapat perubahan yang sangat besar pada budaya, sosial, politik, dan ekonomi. Perubahan ini mengambil budaya barat sebagai acuan dan telah menyebabkan banyak konflik di dalam masyarakat.

Perjuangan budaya yang dialami masyarakat Jepang selama periode Meiji telah mengarahkan Negara tersebut menuju modernisasi dan kesuksesan. Perubahan pada budaya, sosial, politik, dan ekonomi telah menciptakan pondasi yang kuat bagi Jepang untuk mengembangkan dirinya lebih jauh.

(8)

(9)

ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My ultimate gratitude goes to God Almighty for His bottomless love and to my beloved family: my father, Mr. Tukiman; my mother, Ms. Sihwati; my sister, Purwatiningsih; my brother, Agus Dwi Cahya; for their never ending loving, caring, and support. I would like to thank my uncle and aunt, Mr. Sayarno and Ms. Juwariyah, for being like my parents during my stay in Yogyakarta.

I would also like to thank those who have assisted me in making this thesis

project happened. My sincerest gratitude goes to my thesis advisor, Dr. A. Herujiyanto, M.A. for his guidance, precious time, and criticism for my thesis;

Carla Sih Prabandari, S.Pd., M.Hum. and Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd. for their guidance during my thesis project; all staffs of English Language Education Study Program: all my beloved lecturers who are so qualified, patient, and sincere in guiding me to learn English; Mbak Dani and Mbak Tari

who have been very patient and helpful; and all staffs of Sanata Dharma Library.

My warmest appreciation goes to Hana Chubs for her constant support, patience, and love; my friends, Adi Yulis, Ana Paijem, Mbak Dheeta, Berta,

Vina Kecil, Oki Pede,and Retno Detta; my partners in crime, Barkah, Nanda, and Cipto; my classmates and all of my friends who cannot be mentioned here one by one.

(10)

x

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the theoretical background which is used to complete

this study. It consists of four parts namely, Review of Related Theories, Review

on the Historical-Biographical Background, Theoretical Framework and Context

of the Short Stories. Review of Related Theories presents the relevant theories

which are applied in conducting the study. This part consists of two points,

namely biographical approach and sociocultural-historical approach. Review on

the Historical-Biographical Background presents the life and background of

Soseki Natsume and also the influence of Meiji Era on Soseki’s work which

support the analysis of the study. Theoretical Framework explains the contribution

of the theories and reviews in achieving the objective of the study; that is why

they are needed and how they are applied in the study. Context of the Short

Stories presents the settings of the short stories.

2.1 Review of Related Theories

This part presents the theory related to the study to discuss Soseki

Natsume’s five short stories in Spring Miscellany. The theory used in this study is

the Theory of Critical Approach and the Theory of Alienation. The Theory of

Critical Approach is proposed by Rohrberger and Woods. They state that there are

five approaches in this theory which can be implemented in the study of literature.

(20)

sociocultural-historical approach, the mythopoeic approach, and the psychological

approach (Rohrberger and Woods, 1971: 6-15). There are only two of the

approaches which are presented, since only these two approaches are implemented

in this study. They are the biographical approach and the sociocultural-historical

approach.

2.1.1 Biographical Approach

The biographical approach concerns the importance of acknowledging the

author’s personal life for a deeper understanding to his or her works. Rohrberger

and Woods believe that the works of literature has its source within the biography

of the author and the biographical provision itself supplies useful information

which could facilitate literature analysts to better understanding and appreciation

of the works (1971: 8). The work of an author is a reflection of the author’s

personality. Therefore, this approach requires as much data as possible of the

author’s background and information related to the author’s real life.

Wellek and Warren suggest that there are several usages of biographical

approach in studying literary works (1956: 79). First, biographical approach may

explain many allusions and words in an author’s work. Second, this approach will

give assistance in understanding the most obvious of all strictly developmental

problems in the history of literature, for example the growth, maturation, and

possible decline of the author’s works. Third, it accumulates materials for other

questions of literary history such as author’s personal association with literary

(21)

2.1.2 Sociocultural-Historical Approach

The second approach implemented in this study is sociocultural-historical

approach. This approach asserts the analysis of social, cultural, and historical

background as reference to further understanding of the story. Many take the view

that literature criticism of life that affects people in society, and that great

literature expresses the values of orders, restraint and human dignity (1971: 9). It

is suggested that the only way to locate the real work is in reference to the

civilization that produce it. It means that in order to analyze and understand a

literary work, it is necessary to analyze and understand the sociocultural and

historical background when the literary work was produced. What happens in

society at the time the literary work is produced influences the understanding of

the story. The proponents of this approach suggest analyzing the sociocultural and

historical background that can be found in the story itself and outside the story, in

order to get the meaning of the story (1971: 9).

2.1.3 Theory of Alienation

The theory of alienation is related to human isolation discussed in this

study. It explains the isolation experienced by Japanese people through the point

of view of sociology. This part is divided into two sections, namely Alienation in

Sociology, which presents the basic understanding of alienation from several

experts, and The Phenomenon of Alienation in Modern Cities, which presents the

(22)

2.1.3.1 Alienation in Sociology

The phenomenon of human alienation has been a significant discussion to

sociological sciences, since this field of study concerns human behavior in certain

community. R. A. Nisbet in The New Encyclopedia Britannica reviews that there

are five causal theories concerning alienation: the economic, technological,

sociological, philosophic-existensial, and psychological. In sociology, human

alienation is mainly caused by the change from a simple agricultural society to a

modern, complex industrial society (Nisbet, 1974: 574). Allan G. Johnson in his

Human Arrangement also states that in complex industrial societies, work is a

specialized activity separate from other aspects of social life. People not only play

a wide variety of power, but differ sharply from one another in power and their

share of what is produced. Consequently, they are bound to one another by

rational ties of formal secondary relationships in which the feeling of alienated

and lonely arise. In addition, Slater argues that an extreme emphasis on

individuals in a complex industrial society creates a cultural environment that

frustrates basic human needs to trust and cooperate with others (Johnson, 1986:

238).

Karl Marx also concerns about human alienation. His opinion about

alienation is depicted in Marx’s Concept of Man. According to him, alienation

means that man does not experience himself as the acting agent in his grasp of the

world, but that the world (nature, others, and he himself) remain alien to him.

Alienation is essentially experiencing the world and oneself passively, receptively,

(23)

Another definition of alienation is brought by David A. Karp in his book

Sociology and Everyday Life, in which he defines alienation as feeling of

rootlessness experienced by modern people mostly in urban-industrial society due

to social change, the urge toward achievement and social mobility, and the

weakening of community associations (1986: 128).

Alienation, however, is a process; it does not happen suddenly to one’s

life. There are some possible factors contributing alienation to someone’s life.

One of those is the condition of modern life, in which a man is facing a number of

hard choices. This is the reason why alienation happens more frequently in big

cities rather than in rural areas. Another factor is the tight-scheduled working

process in modern society, where people work more with machines, so that it is

hard to build good relationships with others. The sense of depersonalization is

arousing, and finally builds the sense of alienation (Johnson, 1986: 551).

According to Ritchie P. Lowry and Robert P. Rankin in their book,

Sociology, social stratification in a particular society can also be the leading cause

of alienation (1972: 300). Based on these strata, the low class people do not

possess power and wealth that they are becoming unconfident to be together with

the upper one in communal or political activities. These people are apathetic to

join social clubs, political parties, or action committees because of the lack of

(24)

2.1.3.1 The Phenomenon of Alienation in Modern Cities

The belief that cities provide much better living makes people from rural

areas decide to move to those cities, leaving their rural life behind. The different

condition between cities and rural areas, then contribute difference in people’s

social attitudes. As a result, people living in a city are in different ways of

socializing from those living in a rural area. David A. Karp calls a city as a world

of strangers, where large numbers of individuals with varied background live

crowded together in a limited space (1986: 109). Those people are very

heterogeneous in terms of ethnic background, religions, even education that they

are unfamiliar one another. In addition, George Simmel, as cited by Karps, adds

that the urban person is reacting with his head instead of his heart. It is because

the urban dwellers are bombarded with far more stimuli than they can possibly

manage, so that they can only maintain superficial, impersonal relationship with

fellow urbanites (1986: 126).

In another passage, Karp adds his argument by describing the type of

behavior found in urban setting. Because of its density, crowd, and tightscheduled

activities, the city brings its inhabitants to the behavior of selectivity and

noninvolvement. They have to choose the most prominent activities to do and

decide not to be involved with people they regard unimportant to the development

of their works or study. As a result, the urbanites are often depicted to be cold,

indifferent, abrupt, and uncaring (1986: 127) Some sociologists tried to see the

city life in the nineteenth century and found the major characteristics of an urban

(25)

Modern society is characterized by increased rationality and individuality. In a modern society, people are less well integrated than those who live in preurban societies. As the result, the relationships between people in modern society become more contractual, artificial, and contrived. Ties to primary groups, therefore, are weaker in modern society. (Karp, 1986: 128)

Related to this, Allan G. Johnson states

The social value of individuals has reached its highest point in complex industrial societies such as the United States and Europe. As societies increasingly recognize the worth of individuals, their members are less vulnerable to being “buried” in the group, to having no right to stand apart and celebrate their uniqueness. This, however, creates the danger of being isolated from groups, of feeling alienated and lonely. (1986: 238)

The above opinions emphasize that the condition of life in big cities demands

time-limitation, efficiency, and speed so that people in big cities are related

impersonally rather than intimately. This makes some people feel lonely and

meaningless to live in big densely cities. It, as a result, arouses the sense of

alienation of modern life.

2.2 Reviews on the Historical-Biographical Background

Since this study employs biographical approach and

sociocultural-historical approach, it is necessary to include this part. This part presents two

points. The Early Life of Soseki Natsume presents the short biography of Soseki

Natsume and The Influence of Meiji Era in Soseki Natsume’s Works reveals the

influence of social, cultural, and historical influence of Meiji Era, during which

(26)

2.2.1 The Early Life of Soseki Natsume

Soseki Natsume is perhaps the greatest of modern Japanese writers

(Napier, 1996: 1). He was born with the name of Kinnosuke Natsume on February

9, 1867. At that time, his father was 53 years old and his mother was 40 years old.

Kinnosuke’s parents were upper-class administrators who found their social

standing suddenly undercut with the fall of the feudal system, as the Tokugawa

Shogunate collapsed (Natsume, 2004: 9). This led to financial embarrassment to

the family. His presence in the world was also unexpected since for a woman to

have a baby at this age was considered as shameful. Because of financial

embarrassment and having unexpected child in the family, Soseki’s parents gave

their younger son Kinnosuke to a local greengrocer. However, the greengrocers

neglected Kinnosuke since they were busy with daily works, and left him outside

their shop in the basket. One of his sisters brought him home to his original

parents.

A year later, his parents gave him to childless Shiobara and his wife, a

former servant. However, domestic troubles led the couple to divorce and

Kinnosuke returned to his original family when he was 9 years old. However,

Kinnosuke was unaware with his relation to his new guardian, thinking that his

parents were more distant relatives. He called them “grandfather” and

“grandmother”, until one night his caretaker told him that they were in fact his

father and mother (Rosidi, 1989: 49). At age 21, Kinnosuke finally regained the

family name Natsume. A year later, he adopted the pen name Soseki, by which

(27)

early life, Soseki experienced a series of crises concerning his sense of belonging

and identity. The sad events of the first years of his life led to a powerful sense of

dislocation which resembles in his works (Natsume, 2004: 9).

2.2.2 The Influence of Meiji Era in Soseki Natsume’s Works

“Soseki’s own life span (1867-1916) coincided almost exactly with the

long reign of Emperor Meiji (1868-1912), and thus with the Meiji Era that

witnessed unprecedented change in Japan” (Natsume, 2004: 10). During this

period, Japan experienced a massive change in every aspect. “All aspects of

Japanese culture were deeply impregnated by Western art forms and thought”

(Lehmann, 1982: 167). Alongside these cultural changes, there were also

tremendous technological and industrial advances that transformed the Japanese

economy and urban landscape.

When Soseki was one year old, Emperor Meiji proclaimed his “Five

Articles” that ousted the samurai from their seats of power, promoted

Western-style education, and opened the door for wide range of institutional and social

reforms (Natsume, 2004: 10). At that time, Japanese intellectuals and humanists

were in a massive move to imitate everything which comes from Western

civilization. In fact, there were people who suggested throwing Japanese culture

away and in order to modernize Japan, using Latin letters and English only.

Indeed, Soseki lived in a crucial period in Japan history. In literature

world, the first half of Meiji Era is the era of converting Western literature into

(28)

literature produced during the second half of Meiji Era (Rosidi, 1989: 56). As a

person who had studied Western literature, especially British, Soseki saw that

Japanese literature cannot ignore its character. He states that people may say

Western literature is more modern and Japanese literature cannot shows its proud

towards Western literature; however people should also remember that these two

cultures are completely different (Swann, 1976: 161). Soseki insists that each

culture has its own uniqueness, thus people should not forget their own cultural

value. Through his works he tries to give description of the problems and also the

solutions of many challenges faced by his country, especially regarding the

process of modernization under Emperor Meiji which caused conflicts between

values coming from Western culture and existing values in Japan (Rosidi, 1989:

57). The Meiji Era left un-erased mark on him and others of his generation. “All

of his literary works reflects his preoccupation with the cultural and spiritual

dangers associated with such rapid change” (Natsume, 2004: 10). Inger Sigrun

Brodey states that just as Soseki moved from house to house as a young child and

grew to be a stranger in his own home, not even recognizing his own parents,

Soseki describes the people of Meiji generation as straddling cultures, dislocated

both from Japan’s past as well as from its future (Natsume, 2004: 11).

2.3 Theoretical Framework

This section explains the contributions of theories and reviews in

achieving the objective of the study which is to find the meaning of human

(29)

Being”, “Mona Lisa”, “The Kakemono”, and “The Voice”. Those short stories

describe human isolation in many perspectives. In “The Persimmons” and “The

Human Being”, human isolation is depicted in the form of social class; in “Mona

Lisa” and “The Kakemono”, it is described in the form of knowledge of art; in

“The Voice” it is presented The approaches implemented in this study were

biographical approach and sociocultural-historical approach. These approaches

were employed to develop understanding towards the meaning in Soseki

Natsume’s works. The biographical approach referred to the biography of the

early life of Soseki Natsume and the sociocultural-historical approach referred to

the influence of Meiji Era during which Soseki Natsume was living.

The biographical approach related the early life of Soseki’s life to the short

stories which was significant to build understanding to the works. Young Soseki

experienced a series of crises concerning his sense of belonging and identity. He

moved from house to house as a young child and grew to be a stranger in his own

home, not knowing his real parents. This series of experiences influences the

nature of his works. The sense of belonging, which is what people have and do

not have, leads to limitations for human being. These limitations in this study are

called human isolation. It may bring positive and negative effects.

Sociocultural-historical approach was also employed to give another

perspective to Soseki’s real life. Soseki lived during the long reign of Emperor

Meiji from 1868 to 1912. The period, which is called the Meiji Era, was marked

with rapid and massive changes in Japanese culture. Western culture were

(30)

daily life, from politics, bureaucracy, education, and also culture. Japanese

literature was also influenced. At the first half of Meiji Era, Western literature was

translated into Japanese and studied by Japanese writers, thus it influenced the

Japanese literary works produced in the second half of the era. Soseki’s works,

which was started in the second half of Meiji Era, resemble the influence of

Western civilization. However, Soseki did not implement Western literature into

his works, but rather he revealed social and cultural problems occurred during

Meiji Era in which he described that people started to lose innocence and moral

integrity of Japan’s past and pursue the attraction of modernity. This is similar to

Soseki’s experience in his early years. There was also issues regarding belonging

and identity in Japan which arose from rapid change and dissociation from their

past.

2.4 Context of the Short Stories

Soseki Natsume wrote Spring Miscellany in 2002 in Japan. The book

consists of eight short stories and seventeen essays. Some of the essays tell his

experience during his stay in London from 1900 to 1902. Soseki was forty-three

years old when he published the book. At this time, his major works, such as I am

a Cat (1905) and Botchan (1906) had already been published. He was firmly

established as a major novelist in Japan (Natsume, 2002: 8).

During this time, Emperor Meiji still ruled Japan. The long reign of

Emperor Meiji during 1868 – 1912 gave massive influence towards the

(31)

were deeply impregnated by Western art forms and thought” (Lehmann, 1982:

167). At that time, Japanese intellectuals and humanists were in a massive move

to imitate everything which came from Western civilization. In literature world,

the first half of Meiji Era is the era of converting Western literature into Japanese

language. This resulted in wide spread of Western influence in Japanese literature

produced during the second half of Meiji Era (Rosidi, 1989: 56). Western

influence also appears in Soseki’s works. He revealed social and cultural

problems occurred during Meiji Era in which he described that people started to

lose innocence and moral integrity of Japan’s past and pursue the attraction of

modernity.

The setting in the short story is similar to the time when Natsume wrote

the story. In the short stories; “The Persimmons”, “The Human Being”, “Mona

Lisa”, “The Kakemono”, and “The Voice”, there are evidences showing that they

occur in Meiji Era when modernization or Westernization took place. In “The

Persimmons”, the sense of Westernization can be found on the way the character

arranges her hair in Western manner. In “The Human Being”, the main character

is going to Yurakuza which shows that the story has Western influence. It is

revealed in the footnote of the short story, Yurakuza is the first theater in the

Western style which was built in 1908 (Natsume, 2002: 61).

Western art can be seen in “Mona Lisa”, in which the portrait, Mona Lisa,

and the artist, Leonardo da Vinci, are clearly mentioned. “The Kakemono” reveals

a story of an old man who has a high value of Japanese art work. He tries hard to

(32)

kakemono with considerable price. Second-hand shops refusal shows that

Japanese people are starting to lose grip over their own artwork because of

modernization; only those who really know how to value an artwork can

understand the treasure behind it. The main character in “The Voice” studies in a

university and lives in a boarding house. He does not seem to be from a wealthy

family since he comes from a village, rents boarding house, and takes a bath in the

public baths. In Meiji Era, The Education Act of 1872 was issued which

proclaimed that education should no longer be the monopoly of any class so there

(33)

21

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the methodology of the study. There are three

sections of this chapter, namely Object of the Study, Approach of the Study, and

Method of the Study. Object of the study describe the works to be studied along

with its physical description. Approach of the study presents the approaches

employed in the analysis, its description, the reasons for its selection, and the

procedure taken in its application. Method of the study describes the steps taken in

analyzing the works.

3.1 Object of the Study

The objects of this study are five short stories taken from Soseki

Natsume’s Spring Miscellany. The book consists of eight short stories and

seventeen essays. Soseki wrote the book when he was forty-three years old. Some

of the essays tell his experience during his stay in London from 1900 to 1902. It

was originally published in Japanese as Eijitsu Shohin. In 2002, Turtle Publishing

published the English version translated by Sammy I. Tsunematsu. Those five

stories taken as the objects of the study are “The Persimmons”, “The Human

Being”, “Mona Lisa”, “The Kakemono”, and “The Voice”.

“The Persimmons” tells a story about a little girl named Kii-chan. She has

velvety skin and lively eyes. However, her face does not resemble a child with a

(34)

style and takes a Japanese harp lesson. The hairdresser of the family reveals that it

is all the fault of her mother, who is overprotective and does not let her play in the

neighborhood. The neighborhood itself is described as unfriendly area for her, in

which there is a man who makes a rice cake lives opposite, a shop selling straps

for clogs, and a tinker who also repairs locks. As for Kii-chan’s father, he is a

government employee who works in a bank. After coming home from school and

getting bored, she goes to the back of the house and plays with her mother and

grandmother. When there is no one to play with, she goes to a quickset hedge

where there is a bank which separates the house from the street. It is a meter high.

She observes her neighborhood from the spot. One day, a boy from a poor family

named Yokichi passes the street. Kii-chan and Yokichi start talking to each other

but it always ends up with disagreement. One day, Yokichi gets angry and

brandishes a washing pole which makes Kii-chan frightened and retreat indoors.

Another time, Yokichi refuses to return the pretty rubber ball which Kii-chan had

dropped from the hedge. Yokichi demands apology from Kii-chan, but she refuses

it. One day, Kii-chan turns-up at the back of the house again carrying an

enormous orange-colored persimmon. When Yokichi comes over the

embankment, she passes the persimmon and asks him whether he wants to eat it

or not. However, in his usual manner, Yokichi refuses it. They start to argue about

it and finally Kii-chan throws the persimmon and says that Yokichi can have the

fruit. Yokichi, without wasting his time, bits the fruit. He spits the fruit out and

(35)

yells that she already knows that the fruit cannot be eaten, by which she replies

that it should teach him to be greedy.

“The Human Being” tells story about O-Saku who seems coming from a

rich family, being in a rush to go to Yurakuza (the first theater in the Western

style) during New Year’s time. O-Saku, her servant, and her patron look in a hurry

as the time is ticking fast, almost nine o’clock. Her patron gets up a little bit late

as he sits up in bed when it is past nine o’clock. O-Saku rushes him to go taking a

bath and having a shave. O-Saku then goes into her room and opens several

drawers. She picks three trinkets and examines them thoughtfully. She then

chooses one of her trinkets and replaces two of them carefully. She spends at least

half an hour to do it. She packs everything into a yellow fabric that she then

deposits in a corner of the room. At this same moment, the hairdresser arrives and

enters through service door. Since the hairdresser comes without her assistant, it

takes her considerable time to do O-Saku’s hair. The hairdresser then leaves and

wishes all of them an enjoyable day. The patron finally returns from the bathroom

and O-Saku also makes some suggestion of what the patron should wear. When

O-Saku has finished making up, she dons a fashionable coat of machine-stitched

silk and wound a fur around her neck, and very soon the two of them on the street.

Their attention is attracted on the crowd in front of the police station. In the very

middle of the crowd, a man comes staggering along. He wears a tunic and can

neither remain upright nor sit down properly. He is drunk and must have fallen

down in the mud a number of times. A policeman asks him a question and the

(36)

crowd bursts into laughing but the man keeps repeating his answer. A

robust-looking man with a sunburn-face wearing the same tunic and pulling a cart

suddenly comes into the scene. He asks the drunk to get into the cart. He hoists

him into the cart and stretches out on his back. The drunk shouts to the crowd that

even though he does not look much he is still human being.

“Mona Lisa” is a story of Ibuka, a man who loves to spend his Sunday in

second-hand shops looking for some art. He has never been qualified in art and

cannot even hazard a guess as to the quality of what he sees, but by picking out

unusual and inexpensive articles, he tells himself that once a year at the very least

he manages to unearth a real “find”. One Sunday, he discovers a portrait, in color,

of a Western woman. The portrait attracts him. Ibuka immediately values it in low

figure and disconcerted that the price is one yen, but he is able to persuade the old

dealer to let him have it for eighty sen. In his study room, Ibuka examines the

portrait carefully. He asks his wife about her opinion and she simply answers that

the portrait disturbs her. Ibuka continues to examine it from various angles.

However, with no apparent reason, Ibuka feels slightly disturbed. One day, Ibuka

leaves his study room to go to the town hall. When he returns, the picture lays

upside down on his table. His wife tells him that the frame fell on the floor. Ibuka

turns the picture over and opens the frame. He finds a Western article. It is written

in the article the mystery of the portrait and the painter. Ibuka goes to the town

hall asking everybody who is Mona Lisa and Leonardo da Vinci, however,

nobody knows. Deferring to his wife’s views, Ibuka sells the picture to a ragman

(37)

“The Kakemono” is a story of an old man named Daito. He had sworn to

erect a slab over his wife’s grave before the third anniversary of her death.

However, the time almost arrived and he still does not have the necessary amount

of money. Finally the old Daito decides to raise the necessary money by selling a

picture to which he is very attached and which his family had owned for

generations. This kakemono, which is the work of Ojakushi, is a painting on silk,

about thirty centimeters wide and somewhat brownish with age. Old Daito always

maintains the kakemono. One day after he decides to sell the kakemono, old Daito

goes out early morning carrying the kakemono. In the afternoon, he comes home

with the kakemono still in his hands. He had visited forty-five second-hand

dealers, but apparently nobody had thought as much of the kakemono as the old

man had hoped. His son said that a second-hand shop is not the right place to try.

He suggests him to offer it to his friend, the head of the department in Sacred

Building Bureau. However, the old man comes home with disappointment. Later,

an acceptable purchaser turns up by chance and the old Daito let the art lover have

the drawing. Old Daito then goes to Yanaka where he orders a magnificent

gravestone for his late wife.

“The Voice” tells a story of a student named Toyosaburo. He just arrives

at his boarding house. On the first day, he is busy arranging his belonging and

sorting out his books. In his room, the view from his window attracts him where

he can see paulownia and beautiful sky. Supporting his cheeks with one arm,

Toyosaburo continues to contemplate the beautiful autumn sky far above the

(38)

as it were on his table. The memory of his village fills his mind. He hears his

mother calls him. The voice comes from far away and yet he hears it as clearly as

it is close by. His mother died five years ago. Toyosaburo, as if suddenly

awakened, rubs his eyes and he comes back to his conscious state. He looks out

the window and a woman is standing there with vague expression. On the third

day, Toyosaburo buys some chrysanthemums. The flower reminds him of the

garden of the house where he was born. He put the flower in a vase shaped like a

sake bottle. He sits on a cushion and spends his time looking at the flower. Then

the voice calling his name can be heard again. It is unmistakably the same voice

and tone, and as full tenderness as his mother’s in his native land. He looks

outside and finds out that it is the voice of the woman he had seen the day before.

3.2 Approach of the Study

There were two approaches employed in this study, namely biographical

approach and sociocultural-historical approach. The biographical approach gave

contribution in revealing the early life of Soseki. His experience during childhood

influences the nature of his works. Thus, understanding his early life was

significant to build understanding to his works. The description of the human

isolation in the objects of study could be analyzed accurately.

Sociocultural-historical approach was employed to give another

perspective. This approach reveals the influence of Meiji Era toward the works of

Soseki. He was living during Meiji Era in which a rapid and massive change of

(39)

can be seen in Japanese literature produced at that time. The works of Soseki

resembles the influence of this period, where most of them reveal the social issues

occurred because of Westernization. Hence, the implementation of this approach

gave another perspective from social-cultural-historical point of view towards

Soseki’s works, especially the objects of the study.

3.3 Method of the Study

The method to collect data in this study was library research. The data

collected were mainly from books and some of them were from electronic

sources. There are two kinds of sources in this study, namely primary and

secondary sources. The primary sources were Soseki Natsume's five short stories

in Spring Miscellany, namely “The Persimmons”, “The Human Being”, “Mona

Lisa”, “The Kakemono”, and “The Voice”. The secondary sources were theories

and reviews implemented to analyze the meaning of the objects of the study.

There were some steps taken in analyzing the work. The first step was

reading the primary sources which were Soseki Natsume's five short stories in

Spring Miscellany, namely “The Persimmons”, “The Human Being”, “Mona

Lisa”, “The Kakemono”, and “The Voice”. The second step was reading the early

life of Soseki Natsume, the author of the book. The purpose of this step was to

achieve deeper understanding toward the works of Soseki Natsume. The third step

was reading the history of Japan, especially the period when Soseki Natsume

lived, namely the Meiji Era from 1868 to 1912. This step was revealing the life of

(40)

works from social-cultural-historical point of view. The fourth step was

processing all data, re-reading the short stories, and applying biographical and

sociocultural-historical approach in order to achieve the objective of the study.

The last step was drawing conclusion from the analysis of the short stories and

(41)

29

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS

This chapter presents the analysis based on the theories on the framework.

It consists of two parts, namely the description of human isolation as seen in

Soseki’s five short stories and revealing human isolation in Soseki’s real life. The

aim of the analysis is to explain the meaning of human isolation as seen in

Soseki’s five short stories; “The Persimmons”, “The Human Being”, “Mona

Lisa”, “The Kakemono”, and “The Voice”.

4.1 The Description of Human Isolation in Soseki’s Five Short Stories

Soseki’s five short stories; “The Persimmons”, “The Human Being”,

“Mona Lisa”, “The Kakemono”, and “The Voice” share human isolation as the

main theme. In the following part, there are analyses of the description of human

isolation in every short story in this study.

4.1.1 “The Persimmons”

It tells a story of a little girl named Kii-chan. At the beginning of the story,

there is indication that she has a problem. She is described to have velvety skin

and lively eyes, but her cheeks do not shine with the good health of the children in

the neighborhood who grow without a problem. When people look at her, they

immediately notice her yellowish complexion. The hairdresser of the family once

(42)

her go and enjoy herself outside (29). Kii-chan rarely comes out from his house

since her mother does not let her play outside. Her yellowish complexion is

perhaps the result of being inside the house most of the time. Her mother is

overprotective towards her.

The environment where she lives is the reason why her mother becomes

overprotective to her.

It must be admitted that it is not particularly a good area. A man who makes rice cakes lives opposite. Next door, there is a tile maker. A little further on there is a shop selling straps for clogs, and then a tinker, who also repairs locks. As for Kii-chan’s father, he is a government employee who works in a bank. (29)

The story reveals that the social class between Kii-Chan’s family and the neighbor

is different. While her father is a government employee who works in a bank, the

neighborhood seems to be in a lower-class. As a government employee,

Kii-chan’s father is a well-established man economically. Meanwhile, her neighbors

are in lower class, since in terms of social level, their works is not as high as

Kii-chan’s father.

The house where Kii-chan’s family is living seems to be different from the

neighborhood. The house has little quickset hedge and a bank nearly a meter high

along the quickset hedge, while behind the house, there is a nagaya (rows of

linked houses/ tenement) in which “there are five or six houses under one roof”

(30). Kii-chan’s house is surrounded by quickset hedge and a bank. On the

contrary, there is a tenement in which several houses are under one roof which

(43)

Kii-chan does not have a good interaction with her neighbor at the same

age. She often meets a boy named Yokichi when she was at the bank watching the

row of houses. While Kii-chan is watching the row of houses, she and Yokichi,

Genbo’s s little boy, happen to catch sight of each other. Usually, they start

talking. However, it is understood that the two children never agree. It always

ends in a quarrel (31). When those two children have conversation, it always leads

to mockery. Their bad relationship goes worse when Yokichi refuses to return

Kii-chan toy. It ends up when Kii-Kii-chan decides to revenge by offering him a variety of

persimmons which cannot be eaten.

The social class differences between Kii-chan’s family and the

neighborhood lead to isolation to Kii-chan. Her mother is overprotective and does

not let her go and enjoy herself outside; furthermore, she never allows Kii-chan to

play with neighbor’s children (29). She is also lack of social interaction. After she

comes home from school, she spends her time playing at the back of the house.

Her friendship with Yoikichi does not end up well. Their conversation ends up in

disagreement and mockery. The manner of their meeting gives indication of

isolation, where Kii-chan sits on the bank behind her house and Yoikichi stands

up in the street. Thus, it can be summarized that in “The Persimmons”, human

isolation comes in the form of social class. Kii-chan’s social status as a child who

comes from an established family, has isolated her from her social development

(44)

4.1.2 “The Human Being”

The story implicitly compares two different lives: the story of a rich

woman named O-Saku and a drunken man. It begins with O-Saku’s chaotic

morning. As she prepares for everything to go to a theater celebrating New Year,

her morning becomes busy. At all events, she is rushing about everywhere and

asking her servant whether her hair dresser has come because she does not see her

yet. She is sure, however, that yesterday evening she had asked the hairdresser to

come. At that moment, she had reached the stage of being unable to sleep

peacefully until the hairdresser had heard her reply that since she has no other

clients, thus she will come to O-Saku at nine without fail. However, the clock now

shows that there is only five minutes left before it strikes nine (59). O-Saku has

desire to celebrate New Year. She wants to prepare it carefully and makes sure

that she looks beautiful. She makes sure that her hairdresser comes at nine in the

morning so that she can dress up to celebrate the New Year.

There are evidences showing that O-Saku comes from a wealthy family.

She has a servant and a patron (59). Moreover, not only she has her hairdresser

comes, but also she spends a lot of time to choose her trinkets.

(45)

The time she takes to match her trinkets indicates that there are many options she

has. She thoughtfully chooses the trinkets so they can match each other with her

overall appearance, including her dresses and hairstyle. “When she finished

making up, she donned a fashionable coat of machine-stitched silk and wound a

fur round her neck” (61). After having her hair done and matching her trinkets,

O-Saku dresses herself up luxuriously. She wears a coat made of silk and also fur in

her neck. Those indications above prove that O-Saku is rich or in a well-off class.

In contrast, there is a drunken man who lives in a road. He becomes the

center of attention when he mumbles words which make people laugh. O-Saku

meets him on her way to Yurakuza. In the street, she is hanging on her guardian’s

arms while talking to him. When they reach a crossing, a crowd in front of the

police station attracts their attention. O-Saku supporting herself by holding the

folds of his guardian’s cape stands on tip toe to try to peer through the crowd and

see what is happening. In the middle of the crowd, there is a man staggering along

(62). The man attracts many people to surround him. He becomes the center of

attention in front of a police station.

The man is described to have completely different life-style from O-Saku.

He wears a tunic with the name of the outfitters on the back and could neither

upright nor sit down properly. He must have fallen down in the mud a number of

times, judging by the faded color of his wet garment. “The policeman asked him,

‘What are you talking about?’ In a thick voice and with a swanky air, he replied,

‘I’m a human being!’” (62). Every time the drunk answers the question, the crowd

(46)

of mockery as he replies a policeman’s question. The people in the crowd,

including O-Saku and the policeman, disrespect the drunken man by laughing at

him. Instead of giving him a hand, they mock him and treat him like a silly man.

The drunk finally is taken away by his friend. He comes and picks him,

dragging him in a cart. The man is a big, robust-looking fellow with a sunburn

face, wearing the same tunic and pulling a cart. He turns to the drunk and says,

“Get into the cart, you silly idiot! I’ll take you back!” (62). A smile then appears

on the man’s face as he expresses hearty thanks. He hoists himself into the cart

and stretches out on his back. Since, the drunk cannot walk properly, his friend

asks him to lie in his cart so he can drag him out of the crowd. His friend seems to

have worked with him since they wear the same tunic.

The drunk, however, insists that he is human being; someone who

deserves to be respected. “Then he burst out, ‘Crowd of riff-raff! Perhaps I don’t

look up to much, but I’m a human being!’” (63). His friend seems to understand

the drunk. Nevertheless, he also realizes that their condition make it hard for

people to respect them. In response to the drunk’s statement that he is a human

being, the big fellow replies, “Yes, of course you’re a human being. It’s just that

you must be reasonable!” (63). He ties the drunk with a cord. He then goes away

from the police station, jogging along the street with a cart. Finally the drunk

allows himself to be taken away like a pig with its throat cut (63). In general, the

drunken man in this story is treated without respect. He is being laughed at and

(47)

In this story, O-Saku and the drunken man have a completely different life.

While O-Saku spends much of this time preparing to celebrate New Year, the

drunken man spends his New Year in the road. He seems to be a homeless or at

least a poor man. This social class difference between O-Saku and the drunken

man points out that there is human isolation in the story. O-Saku, who comes from

a wealthy and perhaps respectable family, is able to enjoy New Year celebration

by going to a theater. The drunken man finds it hard to get a better recognition

from people. He has been described as unrespectable man, unlike O-Saku.

However, he insists that he is the same human being as the crowd. Thus, it is the

social class difference which becomes the human isolation in this short story.

4.1.3 “Mona Lisa”

This short story tells about Ibuka, a man who always spends his Sunday in

second-hand shop. When Sunday comes, Ibuka, wearing a scarf round his neck

and with his hands tucked into the sleeves of his kimono, drops into the

second-hand shop along the way to rummage through their contents. He fixes the dirties

of all, the one that gives the impression of offering anything the preceding

generation may have thrown out, and the objects on which he chances to light are

turned over and over in his hands (70). He has desire to find something precious

in second-hand shop. He chooses objects which are likely old and dumped by

people. He believes that these objects might have some value. However, he does

not have qualification to judge the quality of second-hand shop contents. He has

(48)

quality of what he sees, but by picking out unusual and inexpensive articles, he

tells himself that once a year at the very least he manages to unearth a real ‘find’”

(70). He realizes that he does not have sufficient knowledge to find something

precious in the second-hand shop. Thus, he decides to buy the things which are

inexpensive. As a result, this limitation of knowledge however, has led him into

several misjudgments of the things he buy in those shops. In the previous month,

Ibuka bought the cover of a cast-iron kettle for fifteen sen and he now uses it as a

paperweight. The other Sunday, he acquired a bronze sword hilt for the sum of

twenty-five sen, and from this too he made a paperweight (70). Ibuka uses most of

the things he has bought improperly. The examples on the short stories show that

the things he has bought ends up being used for other purpose. Ibuka uses the

cover of a cast-iron kettle and a bronze sword hilt as a paperweight. The items lost

its meaning since they have been utilized differently from their origin purpose.

When finally he finds a painting of a Western woman in a second-hand

shop, he decides to buy it at eighty sen. The Western painting, in his view, does

not fit in with all criteria of a great finding, but its tints transcend its period. Since

it is blackened by the passage of time, it seems made to be found in this

second-hand shop rather than in any other. Ibuka immediately values it at a low figure and

is disconcerted to find that the price is one yen. However, the glass is unbroken

and the frame looks robust, so he persuades the old dealer to let him have it for

eighty sen (71). The painting certainly has different value from other items in the

(49)

to the items Ibuka previously bought and because of this, he feels confused. Ibuka

seems to under value the painting since he offers a low figure for it.

As he examines the portrait, it evokes his curiosity since there are some

details which make it mysterious. The picture is described as dark and colorless;

only the woman’s face has a yellowish tint. This, too, is doubtless due to the

period in which the picture was painted. Since he wants to know his wife’s

opinion about the picture, Ibuka asks her what she thinks of the picture. She lifts

the lamp a little higher and gazes silently at the woman’s yellowed complexion.

After a moment, she says “This disturbs me!” (71). Ibuka simply laughs and tells

her that it costs her eighty sen. The painting interests Ibuka’s attention. He asks

his wife about her opinion and her reply does not indicate that the picture is

pleasing to be looked at.

However, his wife’s opinion does not discourage Ibuka not to examine the

portrait further. During his study, he recognizes that the woman in the portrait has

a unique smile which makes him cannot take his eyes of it.

The yellowed woman then gave a faint smile in her frame. Ibuka does not take his eyes off her mouth. It is due to the interplay achieved by the painter between light and shadow. The corners of the thin lips rise in such a way as to create an almost invisible dimple. One could almost imagine that the mouth, hitherto shut, is about to open. Or that the lips, up to that moment partly open, have been closed on purpose. There is no apparent reason. Ibuka feels slightly disturbed, but once again begin to concentrate on his work. (72)

Since Ibuka does not have sufficient knowledge in art, he cannot understand or

interpret the beauty or meaning behind the painting. The more he tries to examine

it, the more he becomes confused and finally the felling disturbs him. However,

(50)

Ibuka’s curiosity grows bigger when he finds a Western periodical paper at

the back of the portrait which describes,

Mona Lisa’s mouth conceals the eternal essence of feminine heart. Leonardo da Vinci is the only artist since civilization began to have succeeded in painting this enigma. To this day, nobody has succeeded in penetrating the secret. (72)

Having no knowledge of who Mona Lisa and Leonardo da Vinci are, Ibuka

decides to go to the town hall asking everybody if they know them. However, no

one seems to know who they are. Finally, he decides to sell the portrait to a

ragman for five sen.

This story shows that Ibuka is lack of knowledge in art. He has the

curiosity to examine the portrait; however, he fails to value the artwork as he does

not have necessary amount of knowledge in art. This is the form of human

isolation. He cannot enjoy the paintin

The cultural struggle experienced by Japanese people as reflected in Natsume Soseki`s five short stories in Spring Miscellany - USD Repository

THE CULTURAL STRUGGLE EXPERIENCED BY JAPANESE PEOPLE AS REFLECTED IN NATSUME SOSEKI’S FIVE SHORT STORIES

Agung Tri Haryanta Student Number: 041214056

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

IN SPRING MISCELLANY

Board of Examiners

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

THE CULTURAL STRUGGLE EXPERIENCED BY JAPANESE PEOPLE AS REFLECTED IN NATSUME SOSEKI’S FIVE SHORT STORIES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ...

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY

REFERENCES………..

1.1Background

1.2Objective of the Study

1.4Benefits of the Study

1.5 Definition of Terms 1.5.1 Human isolation

1.5.2 Reflection

CHAPTER II

2.1 Review of Related Theories

2.1.1 Biographical Approach

2.1.2 Sociocultural-Historical Approach

2.1.3 Theory of Alienation

2.1.3.1 Alienation in Sociology

2.1.3.1 The Phenomenon of Alienation in Modern Cities

2.2 Reviews on the Historical-Biographical Background

2.2.1 The Early Life of Soseki Natsume

2.2.2 The Influence of Meiji Era in Soseki Natsume’s Works

2.3 Theoretical Framework

2.4 Context of the Short Stories

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

3.1 Object of the Study

3.2 Approach of the Study

3.3 Method of the Study

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS

4.1 The Description of Human Isolation in Soseki’s Five Short Stories

4.1.1 “The Persimmons”

4.1.2 “The Human Being”

4.1.3 “Mona Lisa”