GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 FOR SCIENCE STUDENTS.

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FOREWORDS

This is the first time I wrote a text book of general chemistry 2 for science students at University Level. This book is intended to help students in studying chemistry especially those who studying chemistry at undergraduate levels. This book was written in English in order to help students of bilingual classes in Medan and around the country. There is a need for writing chemistry text based on local curriculumn in English so that students would be able to comprehend the materials presented. Of course, this book is urgently required, since the State University of Medan has introduced a new class which is called bilingual classes. This particular graduates are intended to teach students at senior high school levels, where international schools and international standard based schools (Sekolah Berstandar International or SBI) have been introduced recently by Indonesian gevernment at several senior high schools through out the country. These new programs required teachers who are capable in teaching subject matters in English, especially chemistry, physics, biology and mathematics. I hope this book will able to assit and give contributions to students who studying chemistry at second semester in Unimed and other universities, since this modul was written as clear as possible in English.

At last, I would like to thank Rector of Unimed for facilitating, funding and publishing this book.

Sincerely yours,

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CHAPTER 2. SOLUTION 15

2.1 Solution 15

2.1.1. Percentage 15

2.1.2. Mole Fraction 17

2.1.3. Molarity (Formality) 20

2.1.4. Molality 21

2.1.5. Normality 22

2.1.6. Osmolarity 22

2.1.7. Ionic Strength 23

2.2. Acid-Base Reaction 25

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2.2.2. Arrhenius Theory 27

2.2.3. Bronsted-Lowry Theory 27

2.2.4. Lewis Acids- and Bases 28

2.2.5. Water 29

2.3. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 30

2.3.1. Acids and Bases Ionization Constant 32

2.3.2. Calculation Percentage Composition From Formulas 32

2.4. Determination of Formulas from Percentage

Composition Data 35

2.4.1. Using Percentage Composition 36

2.5. Calculating Molecular Formula 37

2.6. Nomenclatur of Acids & Bases 38

2.7. Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 38

2.7.1. Properties of Acids and Bases 39

2.8. Physical Properties 41

2.8.1. Colligative Properties of solutions 41

2.8.2. Vapor Pressures 42

2.8.3. Boiling Point Elevation 43

2.8.4. Freezing Point Depression 44

2.8.5. Osmosis 44

2.9. Neutralization 45

CHAPTER 3. REDOX REACTION AND

ELECTROCHEMISTRY 47

3.1. Redox Reactions 48

3.1.1. Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations 49

3.1.2. Ion-Electron Half-reaction Method 50

3.1.3. Balancing from Oxidation Number Changes 53

3.1.4. Balancing Halt-reaction by the Change

in Oxidation Number Method 55

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3.2.1. Electrode Potentials 58

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4.2.4. Fission and Fusion 93

4.2.5. Fusion 95

4.3. Application of Radioactive Isotopes in

Chemistry and Biology 95

4.3.1. Radiocarbon Dating 96

4.3.2. Radioactivity 98

4.4. Uranium Deposits in Sedimentary Rock 100

4.4.1. Radioactive Waste 102

4.4.1.1. The Nature and Significance of Radioactive Waste 102

4.4.2. Pharmacokinetics 104

4.4.2.1. Sources of waste 105

4.4.2.2. Radiation Poisoning 111

4.4.2.3. Radioactive Pollution 111

4.4.2.4. Sign and Symptoms 112

4.4.2.5. Cutaneous Radioactive Syndrome 113

4.4.2.6. Exposure Levels 113

4.4.2.7. External vs Internal exposure 115

4.4.2.8. Nuclear Warfare and Bomb Tests 115

4.4.2.9. Nuclear Reactor Accidents 116

4.4.2.10. Ingestion and Inhalation 116

4.4.2.11. Hazards 117

4.4.2.12. Low Level Contamination 117

4.4.2.13. High Level Contamination 118

4.4.3. The Main Source of Nuclear Energy 118

4.4.3.1. Element Plutonium-Pu 118

4.4.3.2. Plutonium Reactions 118

4.4.3.3. Uranium -238 119

4.4.3.4. Nuclear Energy Applications 120

4.4.3.5. Breeder Reactors 120

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4.4.3.7. Downblending 121

4.4.3.8. Nuclear Weapons 121

4.4.3.9. Radioactive and Decay 123

4.4.3.10. Radium Series 123

CHAPTER 5. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 128

5.1. Hydrocarbon 128

5.1.1. Homolog Series 129

5.1.2. Types of Formula 129

5.2. Bonding in Alkane 130

5.2.1. Mthane, CH4 131

5.2.2. Promotion of an Electron 132

5.3. Ethane, C2H6 133

5.3.1. Free Rotation of Carbon-Carbon Single Bond 134

5.3.2. Other Alkanes 135

5.3.3.1. Alkanes: Simple- Chain 135

5.3.3.2. Strutural Isomerism 136

5.3.3.3. Alkanes: Branched-Chains 136

5.3.3.4. Cycloalkanes 138

5.3.3.4.1. Substituted Cycloalkanes 138

5.3.3.4.2. Reactions of Alkanes 138

5.4. Molecular Shape 139

5.4.1. The Formation of Single Covalent Bonds 139

5.4.2. Lone Electron Pairs 141

5.4.3. Linear and Planar Shapes 142

5.4.3.1. Electron-Poor Atoms 142

5.4.3.2. Five and Six Groups 143

5.5. Alkenes 144

5.5.1. Structure 144

5.5.2. Naming Alkenes 145

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5.5.4. Isomerism 146

5.5.5. EZ Notation 147

5.5.6. Alkenes Formation 150

5.5.6.1. Thermal Decomposition of Alkanes 150

5.5.6.2. Hydrogenation of Alkynes 150

5.5.6.3. Reaction of Halogenated Derivatives with Zinc Metal 151

5.5.6.4. Dehydrogenation of Mono-Halogenated Derivatives 151

5.5.6.5. Dehydration of Alcohols 152

5.6.6.6. Synthesis of Alkene by Dehydration of an Alcohol 152

5.5.6.7. Wittig Reaction 153

5.6. Reaction of Alkenes 153

5.6.1. Hydrogen Addition or Hydrogenation 153

5.6.2. X2 addition or Halogenations 153

5.6.3. HX Addition 154

5.6.4. H2O Addition 154

5.6.5. HBr Addition in the Presence of Peroxides 154

5.7. Test for Unsaturation 155

5.7.1. Reduction with Hydrogen 155

5.7.2. Reaction with Hydrogen Bromide 155

5.7.3. Poly (ethene) 156

5.7.4. Poly (propene) 156

5.7.5. Poly (chloroethene) PVC 157

5.7.6. Poly(fluoroethene) 157

5.8. Alcohols 157

5.8.1. The Fractional Group and its Test 158

5.8.2. Reactions of Alcohols 158

5.9. Types of Alcohol 159

5.10. Aldehydes and Ketones 159

5.10.1.General Formula 159

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5.11.1. The Relationship between Alcohols,

Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids 160

5.12. Cycloalkenes 161

5.13. Alkynes 162

CHAPTER 6. BIOCHEMISTRY 164

6.1. Amino Acids and Proteins 165

6.1.1. Amino Acids 165

6.1.2. Recommended Daily Intake 168

6.1.3. Use of Essential Amino Acids 169

6.2. Fatty Acids 171

6.2.1. Functions 171

6.3. Vitamin A 172

6.4. Thiamine 173

CHAPTER 7. REACTION RATES 174

7.1. Introduction 174

7.2. Rate of Equation 175

7.3. Zeroth Order Reactions 175

7.4. First-order Reactions 177

7.5. Second-order Equations 180

7.6. The Activation Energy 184

7.7. Collision Theory of Reaction Rates 187

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Figures

Figure 3.1. pH Meter 63

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Figure 5.2. Electronic Configuration 131

Figure 5.3. Electron Promotion 132

Figure. 5.4. Sp3 Hybrization 132

Figure 5.5. Covalent Bonding in Methane Molecules 134

Figure 5.6. Bonding Orbital in Ethane Molecules 134

Figure 5.7. Sigma Bond in Ethane Molecules 134

Figure 5.8. Ethane molecules 134

Figure. 5. 9.Line Structure of 2-Methyl and Hexane 136

Figure 5.10. Hybrid Orbital of Methane 139

Figure. 5.11. Methane 3D Structure 140

Figure 5.12. CH4 is Tetrahedral Molecules 141

Figure 5.13. The Lone Pair Electron of Ammonia 142

Figure 5.14. Linear Shape in Carbon Dioxides 143

Figure 5.15. Bending Shape in Sulfur Dioxides 143

Figure 3.16. Three Dimension Shape-3D 144

Figure 5.17. Cis-Trans But-2-ene 146

Figure 5.18. E-Z -3-methylpent-2-ene 149

Figure 5.1.9. Comparison of E-Z with Cis-Trans 149

Figure 5.20. Diagram for Isomers, Constitutional

Isomers and Steroisomers 163

Figure 6.1. Essential vs. Conditional Essentiality Amino Acids 167

Figure 7.1. Zeroth Order Reaction 176

Figure 7.2. First Order Reaction 179

Figure 7.3. Second Order Reactions 182

Figure 7.4. Variations of Enthalpy in a Reaction 185

Figure 7.5. Collision Diameter of Molecules 185

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Tables

Table.1.1. Q Values Compared with K 9

Table 1.2. I-C-E Chart 10

Table 2.1. Ionic Strength of Some Compounds 24

Table 3.1. The Common Oxidation Number of Some Elements 49

Table 3.2. Oxidation State Changes of Iron and Chlorate 56

Table 3.3. Potential Electrode of Half-Reactions 59

Table 3.4. Increasing Strength of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 71

Table 3.5. Standard Reduction Potential Eo for Half-cells

at 298.15 K (pH=0) 72

Table 4.1. Masses of Some Fundamental Particles 91

Table 4.2. Shows the Uranium Series of Radioactive

Decays of 29892U to 20682Pb. 93

Table 4.3. Binding Energy of Isotopes 94

Table 4.4. Isotopes Used in Chemistry and Biology 96

Table 4.5. Long Lived Fision Products of Tc Series 103

Table 4.6. Medium Lived Fission Products of Eu-155 Series 103

Table 4.7. Uranium Grades in ppm 104

Table 4.8. Fissions Products of Actinides Series 104

Table. 4.9. The Most Stable Isotopes of Uranium-232 107

Table 4.10.Toxicity of Uranium Radiations 110

Table 4.11. Radiation Symptons after Exposuring

to Radioactive Radiation 114

Table 4.12. Uranium-238 Characteristics 119

Table 4.13. Uranium Ores 123

Table 4.14. Uranium-238 Decaying Products 124

Table 4.15. Uranium Isotopes 125

Table 4.16. The Most Stable Isotopes of Plutonium 125

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Table 5.2. Prefix for Naming Alkanes 135

Table 5.3. Orbital Geometries 141

Table 5.4. Naming Alcohols 157

Table 5.5. Formula and Nomenclature of Aldehydes and Ketones 159

Table 5.6. Naming Carxyclic Acids 160

Table 5.7. Common Functional Groups 163

Table 6.1. Essentials vs Conditional Essentiality amino Acids 167

Table 6.2. Essential Amino Acids Daily Intake. 169

Table 6.3. General Source of Protein Intake for Everyday 170