The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Marketing

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‘The scope and coverage of contemporary marketing issues with different perspectives makes the Handbook very unique in that it crosses not only disciplinary boundaries with critical and latest thinking but also links theory to the practical process of marketing applications and strategies.

It is an excellent addition to the scholarly tourism marketing literature. It is a must have book for anyone who is involved in tourism and destination marketing.’

Muzaffer Uysal, Professor of Hospitality and Tourism, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

‘This is an excellent text which offers a challenging and well-structured collection of practical and critical perspectives. Scott McCabe has orchestrated a comprehensive array of contributions by renowned experts to produce what is sure to become the core text for students of tourism marketing.’

John Tribe, Professor of Tourism, University of Surrey

‘The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Marketing represents a considerable effort by leading researchers in the fi eld to present a comprehensive overview of the subject. Tourism marketing covers a broad range of activities, and this book neatly organises chapters into themes, progressing from macro issues of the tourism environment to micro issues of tourists’ individual decision making. A strength of the book is the breadth of knowledge of the contributing authors and their authoritative writing style which makes this a truly comprehensive handbook of tourism marketing. As well as providing historical perspectives, the Handbook is right up to date with coverage of social media.’

Adrian Palmer, Professor of Marketing, Swansea University

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The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Marketing

Tourism has often been described as being about ‘selling dreams’, tourist experiences being conceptualized as purely a marketing confection, a socially constructed need. However, the reality is that travel for leisure, business, meetings, sports or visiting loved ones has grown to be a very real sector of the global economy, requiring sophisticated business and marketing practices.

The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Marketing explores and critically evaluates the current debates and controversies inherent to the theoretical, methodological and practical processes of marketing within this complex and multi-sector industry. It brings together leading specialists from a range of disciplinary backgrounds and geographical regions to provide refl ection and empirical research. The Handbook is divided into nine inter-related sections: Part 1 deals with shifts in the context of marketing practice and our understanding of what constitutes value for tourists; Part 2 explores macromarketing and tourism; Part 3 deals with strategic issues; Part 4 addresses recent advances in research; Part 5 focuses on developments in tourist consumer behaviour; Part 6 looks at micromarketing; Part 7 moves on to destination marketing and branding issues; Part 8 looks at the infl uence of technological change on tourism marketing; and Part 9 explores future directions.

This timely book offers the reader a comprehensive synthesis of this sub-discipline, conveying the latest thinking and research. It will provide an invaluable resource for all those with an interest in tourism and marketing, encouraging dialogue across disciplinary boundaries and areas of study.

This is essential reading for Tourism students, researchers and academics as well as those of Marketing, Business, Events Management and Hospitality Management.

Scott McCabe is Associate Professor of Tourism Management/Marketing at Nottingham University Business School. His research focuses on theorizations of tourist experience, social tourism, and marketing communications and branding. He writes on qualitative methods, particularly socio-linguistics.

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The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Marketing

Edited by Scott McCabe

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2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

The right of Scott McCabe to be identifi ed as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifi cation and explanation without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

The Routledge handbook of tourism marketing / [edited by] Scott McCabe.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Tourism–Marketing–Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. McCabe, Scott.

G155.A1R69 2014 910.68’8–dc23

2013021847 ISBN: 978-0-415-59703-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-85826-5 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo

by Refi neCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk

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Figures

9.1 Classifying tourist experiences 114

10.1 Paradigm shift towards technology enhanced tourism experiences 130 10.2 Co-creation process: technology enhanced tourism experiences 132 11.1 Stages of tourist brand experience and the Internet 145 11.2 The Gathering: example of tourism brand experience creation

through an Internet platform 147

15.1 Levels of marketing planning 198

15.2 Illustration of the usefulness of artifi cially constructed segments 202 15.3 Comparison of the steps required in commonsense and data-driven

segmentation 203

16.1 Evaluation method, KPIs and metrics 214

17.1 Archetypes, brands and consumer enactments: Diamond Core Theory 224 19.1 An integrative framework of holiday decision-making 256

19.2 Decision levels in consumer decision-making 257

19.3 The tourist in transition 263

21.1 Travellers interacting with the Internet when searching information 284

21.2 Mind-set formation and infl uence (MSFI) model 286

21.3 Conceptual framework of information search in an electronic

environment 286 21.4 A framework of travel decision-making in interaction with an

information system 287

22.1 Properties of intuition and reasoning 303

22.2 Advantages of prospect theory 306

23.1 Hierarchical structure of decision-making. 317

24.1 The customer journey canvas 332

24.2 An exemplary persona of young German tourists 339

24.3 An exemplary stakeholder map of a tourism destination 340

24.4 An exemplary high-level customer journey map 341

26.1 Price discrimination 364

28.1 Framework to support the management of customer relationships

in an SST environment 392

30.1 The destination brand benefi t pyramid 417

31.1 Co-creation capacity model comparison 431

32.1 Authors of the brand 437

33.1 Destination brand emotion model: appraisals, emotional responses

and post-consumption behaviours 454

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Figures

35.1 The consumer decision journey today 478

35.2 The behaviour of today’s networked traveller 479

35.3 Top social media brands by total audience (000) per cent growth 480

35.4 Effectiveness of social media marketing efforts 481

35.5 DMO objectives of social media efforts 481

35.6 Common mobile phone uses (US) 487

36.1 Relationship marketing pyramid 496

37.1 The search engine marketing triad 510

37.2 A general framework of the use of a search engine for travel planning 512 38.1 Mediation of tourist experience with technology-assisted mediators 526

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Tables

3.1 Dramatizing for enhanced experience value through interactions 34

5.1 Key principles of social marketing 55

5.2 Key stages in the total process planning framework for a social

marketing campaign 58

5.3 Selected examples of social marketing and tourist behaviour 59

5.4 Key phases in a social marketing strategy 61

5.5 Market segments identifi ed in social marketing exercise 61 8.1 Epistemological, ontological and axiological infl uences 100 9.1 Variables used in traditional marketing theories compared to the

experiential approach 111

10.1 Comparison of experiences 131

10.2 Industry examples of technology enhanced tourism experiences 135

14.1 Analytical methods employed in marketing research 182

16.1 Internet evaluation methods, KPIs and metrics 216

21.1 Types of information searched by American travellers for trip

planning in the past six years 293

21.2 Types of online travel planning activity in the past six years 294 24.1 Service design in the context of marketing and design 333

27.1 Industry/sector classifi cation 372

28.1 Constructs of customer relationship development 391

30.1 The fi ve phases in developing a destination brand strategy 415

31.1 Reliability tests for the Four Construct Model 430

31.2 Reliability test for the Transformation Construct in the Three Construct Model 432 31.3 Hierarchical comparison for the Co-Creation Capacity Construct 432 33.1 The destination emotion scale: initial and fi nal scale statistics 449 34.1 Primary motivations behind willingness to visit Queensland at the

time of the fl oods 463

34.2 Common disaster recovery marketing messages 468

35.1 Digital marketing communications options 477

36.1 Marketing paradigm shift 494

36.2 Social media marketing functions 495

37.1 Forms of search engine marketing 506

38.1 Criteria for typologies of virtual communities 522

38.2 Focus of research and possible insights to theories and marketing practices 527

38.3 Diverse focus of research on travel blogs 528

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Contributors

Ronnie Ballantyne is Lecturer in Marketing at Glasgow Caledonian University; Adjunct Professor of Marketing at the University of Nice and Adjunct Professor of Marketing University of Da’Nang Vietnam. His specialist area of research is branding and consumer behaviour – his previous research has been published in The Journal of Brand Management and several chapters on tourism marketing.

Stewart Barr obtained his PhD from the University of Exeter in 2001 and is now Associate Professor in the Geography Department at the University. His research interests focus on how environmental social science can lead academic discussions on social transformation in an age of accelerated environmental change.

Wided Batat is Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Lyon 2 and a United Nations Representative of the International Federation for Home Economics IFHE at the UNESCO in Paris. Her research is in the area of experiential consumption and tourism.

Carmela Bosangit received her PhD in Business and Management from the University of Nottingham. Her research interests include social media, consumer-generated content, travel narratives, experience marketing and destination place/marketing. She has joined Coventry University Business School as a research assistant in the Marketing and Advertising Department.

Amy Bourke is a former postgraduate student and researcher in the Department of Marketing at the University of Otago. Her research interests include tourism destination marketing.

Dimitrios Buhalis is an internationally renowned researcher, who specialises in e-Tourism and advises on the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in the tourism business.

He is Director of the eTourism Lab at the School of Tourism, Bournemouth University and is responsible for driving forward a cross-university initiative to pioneer collaborative research within the theme of the creative and digital economy.

Robert Caruana is Assistant Professor in Business Ethics at the International Centre for Corporate Social Responsibility of Nottingham University Business School. His current research interests include responsibility, independence, freedom and discourse in tourism markets, and he has published in journals such as Organisation Studies, European Journal of Marketing and Annals of Tourism Research.

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Yeongbae Choe is a PhD student in the Fox School of Business and the School of Tourism and Hospitality Management and works as a research assistant at the National Laboratory for Tourism and eCommerce, Temple University. His research interests include online tourism information, tourists’ decision-making process, and tourist information behaviour.

Jackie Clarke is Reader in Marketing at the Faculty of Business, Oxford Brookes University. Her research interests include tourism and services marketing, sustainability, consumer behaviour in service environments and gift giving behaviour for tourism.

Antónia Correia is a member of the editorial board of the Journal of Travel Research and acts as a reviewer for most of the tourism journals. She has received international awards and published in high-ranking journals. Her main interests are consumer behaviour, prestige and tourism.

Alain Decrop is Dean (and full Professor) of the Faculty of Economics, Social Sciences and Business Administration at the University of Namur, Belgium. His research interests include consumer behaviour, interpretive consumer research (CCT), qualitative methods and tourism marketing. He is author of Vacation Decision Making and co-editor of the Handbook of Tourist Behavior and has published many journal articles.

Sara Dolnicar is a professor of Marketing at the University of Wollongong. Sara’s key areas of research interests are measurement in the social sciences and market segmentation methodology, primarily applied to tourism and social marketing.

John Fahy is Professor of Marketing at the University of Limerick and Adjunct Professor of Marketing at the University of Adelaide. His research interests are in the areas of customer value, evolutionary perspectives on marketing and strategic decision making.

Shelagh Ferguson is a lecturer in Consumer Behaviour at the University of Otago, New Zealand. Her research interests include adventure tourism, consumer theory and culture, and consumption communities within society.

Anita Fernandez-Young has spent half her professional life in business and half in research and teaching. She has taught tourism management and marketing with a special interest in the marketing of culture and heritage.

Daniel R. Fesenmaier is a professor in the School of Tourism and Hospitality Management and Director of the National Laboratory for Tourism and eCommerce, Temple University. His research focuses on tourism marketing, advertising evaluation and information technology.

Anthony Foley is a lecturer at the School of Business at Waterford Institute of Technology. His research interests are in marketing strategy, branding and tourism marketing.

Clare Foster is a lecturer in Marketing at Keele University Management School. Her main research interests are consumer behaviour in tourism, including tourist complaints and atrocity stories, tourist performances and participation, and tourism discourse.

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Contributors Isabelle Frochot completed her PhD at Manchester Metropolitan University and then worked as a lecturer in Scotland. Since returning to France, Isabelle has moved her research focus to mountain tourism, conducting various studies on its image and exploring customer experience design and the complexity of satisfaction in an experiential context.

Alan Fyall is Professor, Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida.

He is co-editor of the Journal of Destination Marketing & Management and serves on many editorial boards including Annals of Tourism Research.

Ulrike Gretzel is Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Wollongong. She has a PhD in Communication. Her research focuses on persuasion in human–technology interaction and adoption and use of social media and mobile technologies.

Rebecca Hawkins is Research and Consultancy Fellow at the Oxford School of Hospitality Management; Visiting Professor, International Centre for Responsible Tourism at Leeds Metropolitan University; and Director of the Responsible Hospitality Partnership.

Sameer Hosany is Senior Lecturer in Marketing at Royal Holloway, University of London. His research interests include consumer emotions, luxury consumption, brand experience, tourist behaviour and destination marketing. He has published in leading tourism and marketing journals.

Simon Hudson is Endowed Chair for the Center of Economic Excellence in Tourism and Economic Development at the University of South Carolina. Prior to working in academia, he worked in the tourism industry in Europe. Simon is a leading expert in tourism research and development, has written six books and over 50 research articles, many on tourism marketing.

Anne Marie Ivers is a postdoctoral researcher at DCU Business School, Dublin City University.

Her research interests are in marketing strategy, entrepreneurial marketing and research commercialisation.

Metin Kozak is co-editor of Anatolia and acts as an editorial board member of over 25 journals.

He has received both national and international research awards to mark his achievements. His main research interests entail consumer behaviour, benchmarking and competitiveness.

Jacquie L’Etang is Professor of Public Relations and Applied Communication at Queen Margaret University, Scotland and is founding and lead editor of Public Relations Inquiry. Her writing on public relations encompasses history, ethics, public diplomacy, sport and anthropology.

Chunxiao Li is Lecturer in Tourism at the College of Tourism and Service Management, Nankai University, China. Her research interests include tourism decision making, choice heuristic and destination marketing.

Xiang (Robert) Li, PhD, is an associate professor in the School of Hotel, Restaurant, and Tourism Management at the University of South Carolina, Columbia. His research interests include tourist behaviour and psychology, and destination marketing.

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Jairo Lugo-Ocando, PhD is a lecturer in Journalism Studies at the University of Sheffi eld in the United Kingdom. He has been a visiting research fellow at the Universidad de Málaga (Spain), Universidad Católica Andrés Bello (Venezuela) and the National University of Singapore.

Scott McCabe is Associate Professor of Tourism Management/Marketing at Nottingham University Business School. His research focuses on theorizations of tourist experience, social tourism and marketing communications and branding. He writes on qualitative methods, particularly socio-linguistics.

Una McMahon-Beattie has a PhD in the area of revenue management, relationship marketing and consumer trust. She is deputy editor for the Journal of Revenue and Pricing Management and is the author/editor of a number of revenue management books.

Judith Mair is a senior lecturer in Tourism and Events at Monash University, Australia. Her research interests include climate change, sustainability and post-disaster recovery for both tourism and events.

Josef Mazanec is Professor of Business Administration in Tourism. His research interests are in tourism management, consumer behaviour, strategic marketing, multivariate methods, decision- support systems and management science applications in leisure, hospitality and tourism.

Nigel Morgan is Adjunct Professor at the University of Tromsø – Norwegian Arctic University (and shortly to join the University of Surrey). He teaches and writes about the connections between tourism, identity, citizenship and place.

Luiz Moutinho is the Foundation Chair of Marketing at the Adam Smith Business School, University of Glasgow, Scotland. He has held academic positions in California, Arizona and Ohio. Luiz was appointed to his fi rst Chair in Marketing in 1989 at Cardiff Business School and to his current Chair in 1996. He has published 25 books and more than 120 refereed articles in leading journals.

Karlan Muniz graduated in advertising and marketing from ESPM-SP and is currently a doctoral student in Business Administration at PUC/PR. Karlan’s research is on marketing, consumer behaviour, brand management and communication. Besides academic activities, and performing work in support of market orientation to business, he is a frequent speaker on topics of branding and consumer behaviour.

Bhanu Nanda is Business Development Manager at Supreme Airways, New Delhi, India. His role is promoting responsible tourism while offering exciting and unique packages across the globe. He helps guests to use the right technology to make their travel experience a memorable one.

Barbara Neuhofer is a PhD researcher at the eTourismLab and the John Kent Institute in Tourism at Bournemouth University. Her research interests regard eTourism and the role of ICTs in the enhancement of tourism experiences.

Michael O’Regan has worked alongside the National Tourism Development Authority of Ireland with Gulliver and for Wicklow County Tourism as Marketing Executive before his PhD

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Contributors at the University of Brighton. He is Assistant Professor at the Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao. His research interests are on tourist, urban, historic, future, alternative, slow and cultural mobilities.

Bing Pan is Associate Professor in the Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, School of Business, College of Charleston. His research interests include online behaviour, destination marketing, search engine marketing and social media.

Stephen Pratt is Assistant Professor at the School of Hotel and Tourism Management at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. His research interests include the impacts of tourism and destination marketing.

Girish Prayag is a lecturer in Marketing in the Department of Management Marketing and Entrepreneurship, at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand. His research interests include consumer experiences, airline marketing and destination marketing. His research has appeared in leading tourism and marketing journals.

Nina K. Prebensen is a professor of marketing at Tromsø University Business School, Norway.

Her current research focus is on experience value. She is part of the research programme ‘Service Innovation and Tourist Experiences in the High North’.

Annette Pritchard is Professor of Tourism and Director of Cardiff Metropolitan University’s Welsh Centre for Tourism Research. Annette has a long-standing interest in places, representations and identities and has published widely on their connectivities.

Shirley Rate is a senior lecturer at Glasgow Caledonian University and Subject Group Leader in Fashion, Marketing and Retailing. Previously, Shirley was a member of staff at the University of Dundee as a lecturer in Marketing delivering management and marketing education to an array of programmes in the School of Management.

Amata Ring is a research fellow at the University of Wollongong funded by an Australian Research Council grant. Her research interests include tourism destination competitiveness, (international) market segmentation, emotions in marketing and advertising, and intercultural service encounters.

Pisuda Sangsue is currently a lecturer in Tourism and Hospitality Management. She has recently completed a PhD in Tourism Marketing at the University of Nottingham, UK. Her major research interests include destination marketing, tourist behaviour and qualitative interpretive methods.

Gareth Shaw is Professor of Retail and Tourism Management and Associate Dean of Research in the University of Exeter Business School. He researches both in retail management and tourism and has held research grants from ESRC, British Academy, AHRC, Leverhulme, Defra and ESRC–AIM. He is currently leading a four-year EU project on Tourism and Wellbeing.

Suresh Sood is a key instigator leading the embracement of new technologies in business curriculum development at the University of Technology in Sydney (UTS) since 1995.

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He writes numerous thought leadership articles and presents at a variety of local and global conferences. His PhD converges on storytelling, social media interactions and marketing.

Andrew J. Spencer is a lecturer in Tourism Management at the University of the West Indies, Mona and holds a PhD from the School of Tourism at Bournemouth University. His research focuses on the determinants of technology adoption for travel retailers with particular emphasis on the strategic management implications and leadership imperatives for owner-managers.

Brigitte Stangl is a lecturer in Tourism at the School of Hospitality and Tourism Management at the University of Surrey. Her research interests are in the fi elds of tourism, information systems and consumer behaviour.

Marc Stickdorn lectures service design at the Management Center Innsbruck in Austria. As a co-founder of smaply and associate of various design agencies, he develops new tools and methods and provides consultancy for many public and private organizations.

Rosemary Stockdale is Associate Professor in the Information Systems Group at Swinburne University, Victoria. Her research interests focus on topics related to how information technology affects organisational relationships. She has published widely on topics such as online communities and social networking in tourism and health.

Manuel Tão is a researcher at the University of the Algarve. He has published research in tourism journals. His main research interests are in economics, transport and tourism.

Karin Teichmann is Assistant Professor at the Department of Strategic Management, Marketing and Tourism at the University of Innsbruck. Her research interests are in the fi elds of consumer behaviour and service research.

Richard Tresidder is a senior lecturer in Marketing at the Sheffi eld Business School. He holds a PhD in the Social Anthropology of Tourism Marketing and he has a particular interest in the semiotics of tourism and hospitality and critical marketing.

Iis Tussyadiah is Associate Clinical Professor with the School of Hospitality Business Management, College of Business, Washington State University, Vancouver. Her research interest is at the intersection of digital technology and human experiences, which include a broad topic within consumer behaviour and mobility in the context of travel and tourism.

Victoria Waligo is a lecturer in Tourism at Middlesex University Business School. Her key research interests include sustainable tourism management, stakeholder engagement and social entrepreneurship with a focus on processes and implementation.

Gabby Walters is a lecturer in Tourism at the University of Queensland, Australia. Her research interests include disaster recovery, destination marketing and visitor behaviour.

Arch G. Woodside is Professor of Marketing, Boston College. He is a member and Fellow of the International Academy for the Study of Tourism, Royal Society of Canada, American Psychological Association, Association of Psychological Science, Society for Marketing Advances and the Global Innovation and Knowledge Academy. He is the Founder of the

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Contributors International Academy of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, and Founding Editor of the Academy’s journal.

Julie Wooler is currently a PhD student at Exeter University undertaking an ESRC CASE award project on Social Marketing. Her research is supervised by Jeff French, Stewart Barr and Gareth Shaw, and concerns a destination-based approach to sustainable tourist behaviour in Devon.

Zheng Xiang is an assistant professor in the Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management at Virginia Tech. His research interests lie in information systems, hospitality and tourism marketing, and emergent technologies.

Ian Yeoman is the founding editor of the Journal of Revenue and Pricing Management and author of numerous publications in this fi eld.

Kyung-Hyan Yoo is Assistant Professor of Communication at William Paterson University. She has a PhD in Tourism and focuses her research on online tourist information search and decision- making behaviour, online trust and electronic word-of-mouth.

Florian Zach is Tod and Maxine McClaskey Faculty Fellow with the School of Hospitality Business Management, College of Business, Washington State University, Vancouver. His main research interests include innovation in tourism destinations, focusing on the importance of collaboration in destinations to foster and to disseminate innovation in an effort to create sustainable and competitive destinations.

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Acknowledgements

Editing this handbook has been an immense and complex challenge, but one which was made light-work turning the seemingly impossible possible, through the generosity of spirit, collegiality, goodwill, patience and obliging hard work given by all the contributors to this volume. I owe them a huge debt of gratitude. They responded to my requests and comments and demands for timeliness with enthusiasm and good heart at every point. It is very heartening indeed to be an academic in this fi eld, with such an enormous range of talented professionals. I would also like to thank those people whom I pestered to contribute but who could not provide material.

A special debt of honour must be paid to Dan Fesenmaier and Alan Fyall on whom I placed even further demands for advice and on whose sound counsel I relied so much. Further thanks are due to Andreas Zins. I would also like to thank all the team at Taylor and Francis, Emma Travis, Emily Davies and especially Pippa Mullins for all their support and help. Finally, thanks to Lisa, Kieran and Harry for putting up with me over all the weekends and evenings this has taken out of the last two years, we should now practice some tourism!

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1 Introduction

Scott McCabe

A few years ago, many tourism developers might have been pardoned for thinking that tourism demand was likely to grow almost continuously and that all they had to do was provide the facilities and tourists would fl ock in. . . Today, the stagnant world economy, the hugely increased price of energy and fl uctuating exchange rates mean that there are no longer any certainties about tourism’s growth. Countries, tourism resorts and individual hotels are having to work much harder to fi ll their beds.

Does this mean that new tourism developments should be discouraged? No, it does not! But it does mean that more resources will be needed for marketing the development throughout its life.

If a project is sensibly conceived and adequate marketing budgets are provided, I fi rmly believe new tourism projects can gain a share of the tourism pie, because marketing works!

(Bonnett 1982: 242)

Introduction

Reading this quote now, it is hard to believe that Bonnett was not writing in the present. Not only does the global context outlined resonate so clearly with the current challenges of the global economy, but also, the marketing sentiments don’t appear so much different from those that continue to drive the tourism industry. What Bonnett’s article does not capture is the sense of fl ux that pervades the fi eld of marketing theory and practice in the current era. Marketing is undergoing a period of great transformation in thought and practice and tourism marketing shares this sense of uncertainty about its future.

Tourists are becoming increasingly sophisticated and knowledgeable. They seem perfectly happy and capable of creating their own itineraries and managing their own tourist experiences.

Technology has rendered information search and travel booking processes convenient, cheap and fl exible. The digital era has transformed social relations, making it simple for people to create and maintain social bonds with strangers and friends in far-away places. Media habits are also being transformed, to the extent that it is no longer clear whether marketing is having any effects on consumers at all. The old certainties are peeling away one by one. Marketing is in danger of losing its way, senior executives are asking about marketing’s relevance to the bottom line, when budgets are being squeezed from every direction.

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This begs the question about the purpose of tourism marketing. What are the distinctive features of tourism that differentiate it from other service sectors or product marketing? What does tourism marketing contribute to our understanding of marketing issues? In order to answer some of these questions it is perhaps necessary to understand the context in which tourism marketing developed as a fi eld. It would be facile to try to map the development of the fi eld of tourism marketing from its early beginnings to the current time. However, it is also diffi cult not to place tourism marketing within a broad historical context.

From an early focus on understanding tourism as a phenomenon of consumer activity from the 1960s onwards, the marketing approach began to take hold, particularly in the American market where marketing issues were addressed even in the earliest issues of the Journal of Travel Research (e.g. Peattie 1968). Early research sought to identify the main sources of available data on travel markets, in an effort to enable better informed marketing strategies to be developed.

Many researchers were oriented towards understanding motivations and tourist behaviour (Crompton 1979; Dann 1981; Pearce 1982). In the 1990s dedicated textbooks began to appear, some of which are still available and in print after many editions (e.g. Witt and Moutinho 1994;

Middleton 1994). Research became more sophisticated and diffuse. During the 1990s, following the paradigmatic changes in the fi eld of marketing, tourism researchers began to focus on the need for a market orientation, a recognition that marketing should try to understand customer needs and develop meaningful relationships that would drive loyalty.

In the following 20 years to the current time, tourism marketing has become a widely established fi eld of research and scholarly activity with specialist journals such as the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, Journal of Vacation Marketing, with continued developments such as the recent addition of the Journal of Destination Marketing and Management. Whilst generically, it may argued that tourism marketing remains an applied fi eld of research, it is also true that it forms a very sophisticated body of knowledge. This makes the task of compiling a handbook of tourism marketing a very diffi cult one indeed. The vast wealth of research and the very broad coverage of issues mean that in many ways the choice of topics is in some sense arbitrary.

What I have attempted to do in this work is to focus in on foundational issues that, together with emerging and future research challenges, are important to understand current and future trends, challenges and opportunities, and to try to encourage a critical examination of marketing’s role in the wider context of tourism and wider society. Whilst there are a large number of textbooks and other monographs devoted to various aspects of tourism marketing, and an emerging number of handbooks dealing with marketing strategy in tourism for example, there are fewer works that have tried to locate tourism marketing within a scientifi c context, and position tourism marketing in terms of its distinctive conceptual features, the characteristic methods and frameworks, and to link its main contributions to disciplines and fi elds. This was the main underpinning aim for this book.

At a very generic level, tourism marketing research can be best described as distorted in terms of its coverage of marketing concepts and fi elds, often with little emphasis on core marketing topics such as marketing communications. And yet in other aspects, tourism marketing research and scholarship are quite well integrated; place branding is one example. Similarly, tourism marketing academicians have made great strides in some areas, consumer research for example, but it is less obvious that this knowledge has impacted on theorizations of consumer behaviour more widely. Research methods have also been adopted by tourism marketing scholars, but there is often a lag in their uptake, thus it was important to understand how tourism research methods or contexts are useful to theory and method development. Therefore it seemed useful to try to engage with these contributions and gaps. Finally, it was important to address where tourism marketing has come from and where it is going.

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Introduction

Tourism marketing foundations

The handbook is structured into nine sections. The fi rst and last sections each contain two chapters. The introductory part deals with fundamental paradigmatic issues that refl ect both shifts in the context of marketing practice (Chapter 2) and our understanding of what constitutes value for tourists (Chapter 3). Xiang (Robert) Li begins by situating the current state of upheaval within the fi eld of marketing within a historical context in Chapter 2. Marketing, born out of classical economic theory, initially concerned with understanding the functions of markets and the nature of value in exchange relationships, has evolved over the last century to become an established socio-economic process. The continued unfolding of technological developments has accelerated change in business innovation and consumer markets, the knowledge economy. The consequential structural changes to social relationships brought about by Internet and digital technology adoption has forced a radical shift in thinking about the function of marketing, taking us back to almost fundamental principles.

These can be summarized fi rstly, as the general shift in thinking about the role of marketing in this new knowledge economy, that fi rms should focus their energies on bringing together dynamic, specialized competences, knowledge and skills to create and deliver service, which should be the basis for all business activity, the new service-dominant logic (SDL) (Vargo and Lusch 2004). Secondly, a fundamental principle of SDL is that customers should also be treated as operant resources, bringing their skills, experience and knowledge into the relationship with fi rms, and it is through this process and only through this process that value can be created, in use. Value is co-created jointly and contextually by the company and the customer (Prahalad and Ramaswamy 2004). The fi rst part of the book examines how these fundamental ideas in marketing have been and can be related to tourism. This is critical because intuitively and fundamentally tourism is a consumer experience that is primarily based on simultaneous production and consumption, context-specifi c and collaboratively produced by tourists and service employees.

In Chapter 2, Li outlines the main propositions of SDL, and discusses the links between this and related marketing concepts. He highlights some of the criticisms placed on this emerging set of ideas, and goes on to assess the implications within the context of destination marketing, arguing that DMOs have to reorient their thinking and activity to meet the demands of consumers in the future. However, these implications have resonance for all sectors of tourism marketing. In Chapter 3, Prebensen examines the basis of tourist experience to understand how value is conceived and perceived by tourists through their interactions with people and places.

Thinking about tourists as active agents, rather than the passive receptors of actions provided by companies has a crucial consequence for tourism marketing research and yet there has been limited attention from the tourism marketing academy on the value creation process. However, this is dramatically changing with a slew of new studies emerging in the literature. Prebensen defi nes and outlines the literature in value co-creation and discusses critical issues such as the degree of involvement between the actors, the nature of tourist value as autotelic, and driven by intrinsic goals. She argues that fi rms should understand the types of core values desired by tourists from their experiences, and dramatize their service offers to meet those value expectations.

The themes explored in the two chapters in Part 1 resonate throughout the other parts and chapters in this volume. This indicates both the desire for tourism researchers to engage with foundational marketing theory and practice, and also a sense of the applicability of these ideas to tourism marketing contexts. Tourists are knowledgeable actors, who, particularly in the developed world, are eminently capable of deploying their skills to use technology to create their own travel experiences. Tourism fi rms must look beyond the marketing management perspective to establish

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what types of resources they can bring to facilitate experience value for consumers. This will require a more critical engagement with conceptual and broader scale issues relating to tourism marketing’s effects on society and or social processes.

The last section, Part 9, also contains two chapters under the umbrella of ‘refl ections’. In the fi rst Fesenmaier and Zheng Xiang (Chapter 40) plot the fundamental shifts in marketing thought and practice over the last two decades, a period of frenetic growth in marketing research amidst the context of deep socio-cultural change. Fesenmaier and Xiang identify key issues that will drive future marketing research such as the need for measurement and evaluation in the era of big data, what travel in the network does to transform tourist experience, and customized marketing. This is followed by the fi nal chapter, Moutinho, Ballantyne and Rate (Chapter 41), that looks forward to assess how futurecast can help tourism marketers and researchers to understand key issues for the future. The authors reiterate some key themes expressed both in the fi rst part of the book, such as prosumption, and the imperative to co-create tourism experiences to maximize consumer value. They emphasize the shifting power dynamics between consumers and fi rms and stress the diminishing impact of brands and conventional marketing. In many ways, these four chapters provide a critical lens which frames the issues discussed in the following parts.

The macromarketing perspective

Part 2 of this book explores macromarketing issues and tourism. Macromarketing is used here to mean the impacts of marketing on society, and the consequences of society on marketing systems in tourism (Schulz 2007). These issues raised in the chapters in Part 2 are fundamental to understanding how tourism marketing might be more successful in the future, and also from the perspective of research, how the context of tourism marketing might infl uence or otherwise relate to the main scientifi c community of marketing. Marketers in the future must act responsibly and demonstrate those actions to their stakeholders and the wider community. In tourism it is accepted that the industry depends on fi nite cultural and natural resources for its success, and that in terms of selling tourism experiences, there is a need to represent services appropriately, since the consequences of not acting responsibly are very high. Yet the highly competitive and fragmented business environment of the sector, the perishable nature of the product and fi ckle consumer demand perhaps dictates an orientation to short-termism and profi t today mentality.

Conterminously, the actions of the tourism industry are inseparably bound to wider socio- political forces of power. Hence there is a need to try to understand how and what tourism marketing contributes to the wider debates about marketing’s role in society. The chapters in Part 2 aim to explore these issues.

Firstly, in Chapter 4, Clarke, Hawkins and Waligo interleave ideas from marketing, sustainable development, tourism studies, and sustainable marketing to debate the relationships between marketing, sustainability and responsible tourism. They outline the reasons why fi rms become involved in responsible tourism and contextualize their discussion in the dominant social paradigm of the ‘West’, a culture of consumerism, individualism and anthropocentrism that constrains the actions of sustainable marketers to merely reproducing rather than challenging the established norms. However the authors go on to provide examples from the micromarketing perspective and highlight new directions and strategies to challenge the status quo.

In Chapter 5, Shaw, Barr and Wooler pick up one of the themes mentioned in Chapter 4, that of social marketing. The tourism industry often generates a rhetoric of being fi xated on second guessing next trends, and justifying this as providing what consumers want, and yet this stance overlooks the powerful role the industry plays in generating these appetites in the fi rst place and in encouraging behaviour that might best be characterized as self-indulgent. Social marketing

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Introduction has rarely been applied to tourism, and yet offers potential to understand how consumers’

attitudes, desires and behaviours might be ‘nudged’ into more positive directions. Shaw and colleagues discuss the political and practical issues surrounding this approach. Chapter 6 continues this theme in the context of the complexities of the relationships between public relations (PR) and tourism.

L’Etang and Lugo-Ocando (Chapter 6) argue for the fundamental dependency between tourism and reputation, implicitly linked to the importance of image, and in particular the organic forms of image production. L’Etang and Lugo-Ocando outline the main debates surrounding PR and explain how it has evolved into a broader strategic function from its earlier context as a function of micromarketing. However, the inclusion of this chapter in relation to tourism macromarketing is due to the positioning of the discussion of the ethicality of tourism- reputation systems, as they have developed into complex networks of actors and socio-political dynamics that orchestrate media information in an effort to attract tourists through reputation management, largely incorporating varying levels of government. Similarly, the authors argue that the emergence of digital media and social networks create a need for PR to rethink its research approaches and conceptual frameworks to develop multidisciplinary understandings and approaches to reputation management in the future that have critical implications for tourism fi rms and destination managers. What this chapter ably demonstrates is that communication is inextricably linked to power. This theme is the main focus of Chapter 7.

Caruana (Chapter 7) examines the role of marketing communications in producing discourses, and shows how tourism marketing has been directed towards the reproduction of power dynamics. Tourism marketing communications are social constructions, and as such they shape information in particular ways. This has been recognized as one of the main contributions of tourism social science within a marketing context, since tourism marketing texts and images have been shown to actively constitute broader social discourses of hedonism, alterity, authenticity, mythological places and post-colonial power relations for example. Caruana goes on to discuss how these cultural texts produce sets of power relationships between tourists and hosts which creates implications for marketing practice. In the last chapter of this section (Chapter 8), Tresidder takes the analysis of tourism marketing texts to a different level to explore how semiotics can be used to understand how marketing texts communicate to tourists through signs.

Tresidder argues that there is a discrete semiotic language of tourism, one that we would perhaps all recognize (‘escape’ for example is a trope discussed in Chapter 7). Signs and images act as a sort of prism through which meaning and value is connoted. As such, an understanding of the principles and practices of semiotics will enable a better understanding of how marketing functions at a symbolic level in the minds of consumers. The application of semiotics to tourism is signifi cant, and has attracted social anthropologists, experts in communications and socio- linguistics, and cultural and media studies over many decades (e.g. MacCannell 1975; Culler 1981), and yet the links between these disciplines and tourism marketing has been limited.

Tresidder highlights that in an increasingly mediated world, semiotics offers real insights into marketing theory and practice.

Strategic issues in tourism marketing

Having set the paradigmatic and broader socio-political context, Part 3 presents fi ve chapters dealing with strategic issues in tourism. It is quite incredible to think that ‘experience marketing’

has only recently become a prevailing force in tourism marketing perspectives. Despite the experiential nature of tourism, a main criticism of tourism marketing until recent times can be that it has focused too much on the technical aspects of service delivery and not enough on the

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psychological environment of tourists in terms of what they seek from the experience of travel.

The fi rst chapter in this section moves us some way towards an understanding of what an experiential approach to tourism marketing might entail. Batat and Frochot develop a new framework for an experiential perspective to tourism marketing (Chapter 9). Whilst Neuhofer and Buhalis (Chapter 10) connect ideas about experience co-creation and experience marketing to technology enhanced tourism experiences, ‘Experience 3.0’. Recognizing the importance of brands as mediators of all our lives, Foley, Fahy and Ivers outline the concept of brand experience and relate this to tourism marketing contexts (Chapter 11). The fi nal two chapters in this section deal with some perennial strategic issues, collaboration and customer satisfaction.

Fyall (Chapter 12) outlines how the new marketing realities outlined in earlier chapters are pushing fi rms towards greater levels of collaboration. He provides the example of collaboration in the airline sector as one of the most successful and yet most complex forms of collaboration, which provides a useful illustration of issues and lessons for the broader sector. Whilst Foster (Chapter 13) debates the approaches taken to understanding satisfaction in tourism. She explains that if the tourism industry really wants to understand what makes customers satisfi ed, it needs to reconfi gure the ways we conceptualize customer satisfaction studies. She argues that tourists evaluate their travel experiences in a socially constructed and co-created way through interactions with industry representatives, locals (hosts) and other tourists. The performative approach advocated by Foster chimes with the appeal made by Prebensen in Chapter 2 for a more considered engagement between the industry and tourists to understand the process of value co-creation.

New approaches and critical developments in the conceptualization of tourism from a marketing perspective require an examination of marketing research methodologies and research issues. Part 4 addresses recent advances and developments in research. The majority of marketing research comes from the quantitative perspective, and in tourism as with the main marketing fi eld, there is a plethora of analytic techniques, challenges posed by tourism marketing research problems and new metrics being developed constantly.

Tourism marketing research

The issue of marketing metrics in the digital era is particularly relevant given the potential opportunities provided by ‘big data’ and the need to understand how to evaluate social media marketing activity. The section opens with a review of quantitative methods in tourism marketing research (Chapter 14). Mazanec, Ring, Stangl and Teichmann begin by reviewing the main techniques used in tourism marketing research. They argue that in general there is a lag in methods being adopted in tourism research from the main marketing fi eld. Examples such as Principal Component Analysis and social and semantic network analysis are provided. The authors deal with foundational issues such as critical factors underpinning knowledge drawn from scales; a range of issues relating to assumptions underpinning Structural Equation Modelling;

segmentation and clustering techniques and discrete choice modelling. The chapter synthesizes the main methodological issues facing quantitative marketing analysts in tourism and provides new avenues for future research that promise to overcome current challenges.

Identifying that segmentation research has formed a very important strand of tourism marketing research, Sara Dolnicar provides a focused discussion on the methods and issue in Chapter 15. Dolnicar fi rst outlines the role of market segmentation in marketing planning before discussing the disconnect between academic research on market segmentation and the practices of the tourism industry. Industry often uses naïve or basic approaches to segment their markets, yet there are sophisticated approaches being used in academic research. However, these are not

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Introduction without their challenges, particularly the basic assumptions upon which segments are identifi ed, either as natural (differences in market characteristics exist) or as exploratory (research process identifi es and creates segments). Of course, each may have their use for the industry and Dolnicar points to the potential that segmentation methods offer in the future for this key aspect of tourism marketing research.

Much of the research on marketing evaluation has been undertaken from the perspective of destination marketing campaigns. This is a key weakness of tourism marketing research as highlighted elsewhere in this volume. Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs) are often at least part-funded by public money and so there is a need for good quality evaluation of the success or otherwise of public investment in marketing activities. This is not the case with the tourism industry, where there is little evidence of the relative effectiveness of different marketing activities. Chapter 16 takes up the issues to discuss what works and what doesn’t in destination marketing campaigns. This is a complex issue as Pratt outlines, since it is diffi cult to attribute destination visitation decisions to a particular stimulus and the complexity of the destination system. Pratt negotiates these complexities and presents a clear review of evaluation methods including combined and online evaluation techniques, and concludes that in the future doing nothing just won’t be an option.

The need for novel solutions to help counteract the challenges posed by an increasingly digitally mediated world lead us on to the potential offered by combinations of positivistic approaches to qualitative data. In Chapter 17 Woodside, Muniz and Sood relate how narratives that tourists produce online during or after their travel experiences can be linked to psychological archetypes, and thus inform place branding strategies and consumer behaviour. They outline the use of degrees-of-freedom analysis (DFA) and visual narrative art (VNA) can be used to reveal narrative archetypes. These archetypes can be matched against destination branding, to feed into strategies and to understanding how consumers create value and attach meaning to their tourist experiences.

The fi nal chapter in this part of the book continues with methods relating to destination image and branding, however from a qualitative perspective. Sangsue (Chapter 18) addresses the issue of brand confusion. Tourists, faced with an overwhelming mass of information from an increasing range of media channels, have diffi culty in processing images and thus can become confused. However, the focus of this chapter is on how Sangsue used photo-elicitation as a stimulus to create confusion in her respondents. Visual methods have been used frequently in tourism sociology and cultural studies, but less so in the context of tourism marketing. Sangsue demonstrates the effectiveness of this approach to deal with marketing problems and outlines its potential for tourism marketing and destination branding.

The tourist consumer

Part 5 moves to focus on the tourist as consumer. The section begins with a review of recent theorizations of tourist behaviour by Decrop (Chapter 19). Linking back to previous chapters on the changing context of experience marketing and the tourist experience, Decrop argues that the changing consumer context makes it even more critical that tourism marketing under- stands the complex preference structures and decision patterns underpinning tourists’ choice and consumption processes. Theory in tourist consumer behaviour is both rich and infl uenced by multi-disciplinary perspectives. Decrop outlines these underpinning paradigms, and shows how they have informed theory on tourist decision making process. This links to the experience concepts of Consumer Culture Theory (CCT) (Arnould and Price 1995) outlined in Chapter 9 by Batat and Frochot and the experience value concepts outlined by Prebensen in Chapter 3 and

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Neuhofer and Buhalis in Chapter 10. Decrop argues that holistic approaches are required to develop more complete and nuanced understandings of tourist behaviour in the future.

Tourists are not an homogenous group and yet tourism marketing has applied a fairly standardized set of marketing practices. In Chapter 20, O’Regan interrogates the demand and supply relationships that have resulted in a highly fragmented marketplace on the one hand, but a largely undifferentiated set of marketing activities on the other. Whilst technologies offer marketing opportunities to engage with niche segments more from the bottom up, there are also challenges, which O’Regan outlines. One of the most important aspects of tourist decision making is the information search process. Travellers seek information as an essential element of their trip experience. Therefore the range, type and channels or sources of information are particularly relevant for successful outcomes for travellers. Information holds the key to success for tourism businesses. The ubiquitous-ness of the Internet, both in fi xed locations and through mobile devices, has meant that information search processes are becoming more fl exible and fl uid. This is the essential argument proposed by Zheng Xiang, Choe and Fesemaier in Chapter 21. They synthesize a review of literature on information search in tourism, including the factors that infl uence search behaviour, and online information search. The authors provide a comprehensive analysis of the implications of this paradigm shift in information processes for tourism marketing in the future.

Focusing in on decision processes in detail, Correia, Kozak and Tão (Chapter 22) hone in on a critical discussion of decision making models and research. Despite decades of research and the development of complex models of tourist decisions, from a fundamental perspective, these efforts can be criticized since they do not include psychological factors. This is a crucial problem since, as many chapters in this volume mention, tourism involves emotion as well as cognition.

Affect, alongside intuition and perception, has a role to play in decision making for tourism and Correia, Kozak and Tão outline the main aspects of prospect theory, and explain how it complements, and yet extends the ability of classical models of tourist decision-making. They argue that prospect theory offers a great deal of potential for tourism marketing research. Tourist decision making models should acknowledge that decisions are dynamic and risky, constrained by individual and social contexts of tourists, from which emotional and cognitive factors play a role in the fi nal choice.

Chapter 23 focuses on destination choice and selection, particularly to advanced methods for estimating preferences in selection processes. Chunxiao Li, in agreement with Correia, Kozak and Tão, identifi es that there has been little consideration in the tourism literature for the conceptual foundation on which decision making research is based. She reviews the literature on different methodological assumptions through a focus on destination decision making. In addressing the issue of the question of the importance of different destination attributes, Li reviews simple and multiple regression approaches with Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), which allow paired comparisons of attributes that more closely matches consumer’s processes.

However, these methods are only useful to a certain extent and in order to understand how attributes are considered, we need to understand the choice heuristics applied in the process. To do that, Li compares conjoint approaches with a novel approach called greedoid methods. This can be used to explore lexicographic choice heuristics and offers potential to understand tourist choice processes.

Micromarketing perspectives

Part 6 of the book focuses on micromarketing issues. In this section there are six chapters. Firstly, in Chapter 24, Stickdorn returns us to the co-creation of experience. Customer experience is

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Introduction often the decisive factor for the success of brands, products and services. It is in this sense that services must be designed based on a clear understanding of what and how customers value from their journey through the service experience, the touchpoints. This can only be achieved through the adoption of design principles, which Stickdorn defi nes as an ecosystem. He argues that service design is an iterative process, which must involve customers at each stage. He outlines the main principles of design thinking and shows how these can be applied in tourism. Chapter 25 centres on tourism distribution contexts and future strategic issues. Whilst technological change has been a driver behind many of the issues covered in the dynamic context of tourism marketing outlined thus far in the book, nowhere has that been more apparent than in the context of distribution and the mediation of travel services. Spencer and Buhalis describe the context of those debates, the history of information and communication technology (ICT) adoption and diffusion and acceptance, relating them to two key issues for the future, the digital divide and the imperative for leadership in driving forward technology adoption across the industry.

The following two chapters deal with pricing and revenue functions. Firstly Fernandez- Young argues that despite its positioning as an aspect of the marketing mix, it is essential that marketing recognizes the strategic role that price setting plays in the organizational strategy.

Price setting is fundamental to tourism marketing and decision making, because it is often only by the price that consumers can judge the quality of the product. Fernandez-Young outlines the different mech anisms that can be used and relates these approaches to price discrimination methods. Helpfully, this chapter discusses pricing decisions in the context of a number of different sector examples. The following chapter (Chapter 27) takes up the issue of revenue management (RM) as a strategic tool. McMahon-Beattie and Yeoman provide an overview of development and use of RM in tourism. They relate RM to economic theory and to perceived value and highlight the challenges and potential confl icts between RM and customer relationship management (CRM) before discussing the implications of dynamic pricing and ethical issues relating to trust and fairness in the context of RM strategies.

CRM has often been cited as a key driver behind tourism marketing practice. Customer loyalty and retention is crucial to success of tourism businesses and tourism is often constructed as being a ‘people’ industry, based on face-to-face interaction. Yet technological change and competitive pressures have challenged businesses to focus on processes that increase effi ciencies.

Some of those effi ciency gains have been brought about by the adoption of self-service technologies (SSTs). Tourists can now book, pay for and use a service without any contact with personnel. Often, tourists actually desire this minimal level of interaction. So, a challenge is to build long lasting relationships whilst at the same time encouraging them to be autonomous.

Chapter 28 provides a critical analysis of the use of SSTs in tourism and how they can be used alongside CRM strategies. Stockdale develops and presents a framework to show how relationships and brand loyalty can be established in an SST environment and links these to outcomes for customers and fi rms. Finally in this section, McCabe and Foster (Chapter 29) review the literature on marketing communications in tourism. They show how tourism marketing research has approached communications issues in a rather limited and atomistic sense. The chapter outlines communications theory as a context for discussing the need for a more integrated approach to research on understanding the effects of marketing promotions and campaigns across different media channels.

Destination marketing

Part 7 moves on to focus on destination marketing and branding issues. This section begins with Morgan and Pritchard, who set the context for this section with a review of destination branding

The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Marketing

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The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Marketing

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The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Marketing

Edited by Scott McCabe

Contents

Figures

Tables

Contributors

Acknowledgements

1

Introduction

Scott McCabe