Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter concerning previous studies and some conceptual framework. There are five previous studies from different writer as the guideline for the researcher.
Two previous studies are from journal article and three previous studies are from thesis. Stylistic criticism will be used as the whole concept of the theory, the researcher will explain about stylistic approach by Wellek and Warren, kind of metaphor by Lakoff and Johnson and the definition of meaning by Larson, as the guidline to conduct the analysis. Besides, in order to make the result of this reasearch getting better, the researcher also used theory by Halliday and Hassan.
2.1 Previous Studies
Nowadays, we recognize that some language appear figuratively. People write poems, article, novel are using some beautiful words and sentences to make it more interesting. Thus, the used of figurative language is needs serious attention from many researcher. It based on the fact that previous researcher likely discuss about figurative language. The researcher got some previous studies as the guideline for this research. There are two previous studies from journal article and three previous studies from bachelor’s thesis. Those previous studies also have the correlation with this research such as the theory used, method and the way they collect data. In order to gain more data and get the scientific result, the researcher will adapt some theory from the previous studies.
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia The Perception of Love and Death of Emily Dickinson Seen on her Selected Poems is written by Sandi Adi Cahyo on 2009 from Universitas Sanata Dharma Yogyakarta. This study analyze the symbol and the meaning of Emily Dickinson selected poems as well as analyzed the significant of love and death seen in Emily Dickinson poems. Since this research focus on the selected poems by Emily Dickinsons that used death as the theme, so the result of this study are really helpful for the researcher in order to know the whole context of the poems. The result shows that the meaning of psychological death from Dickinson’s poems come from the feeling of the speaker loosing the people she love.
Tutut Martha Ulfa conducted a research entitled The Metaphor Used in Anne Bradstreet’s Poem on 2016 from Universitas Islam Negri Maulana Malik Ibrahim.
The main objective of this research are to find the kind and the meaning of metaphor in Anne Bradstreet’s poem. In her research, she used structural approach and theory of methapor by Ullman. Ullman stated that metaphor is slow closely intertwined with the very texture of human speech such as motivation, an expensive device, a source synonymy and polysemy. As the result of her research, she found that in 27 line of Anne Bradstreet’s poem are contain the metaphor. 8 lines include in anthropomorphic metaphor, and 2 lines include in synanaesthetic metaphor. This previous study give the researcher insight to identify the metaphor inside the poems, and the researcher adapt the way she analyze the metaphor.
Translation of Metaphorical Exressions in Andrea Hirata’s Edensor written by Yolanda Cynthia Putri from Universitas Negri Yogyakarta on 2013, is conducted in order to know the metaphor in source text and the translation method apply by the translator to translate metaphorical expressions. As the result, she explain that
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia there two kind of metaphor in Edensor novel, they are dead metaphor and life metaphor. She proven that there are 9 techniques applied to translate the metaphorical expressions. This study contribute to give an insigt to the researcher to interpret the meaning of poems.
Akbar Pradana Harata in 2016 conducted a research entitled An Analysis of Metaphor in Maya Angelou’s “Caged Bird” and “I Still Rise” Poems from Teaching of English Language and Literature Journal. The aim of his study is to explore the possible meaning of metaphor found in Maya Angelou’s Caged Bird and I Still Rise poems. The result shows that there are three types of metaphor that found in Maya Angelou’s selected poems. There are live metaphor conceptual, mixed metaphor and poetic metaphor.
Other previous study entitled An Analysis of Metaphor in Emily Dickinson’s Poems is written by Habib Syarwani on 2017 with the objective of the study are to find the kind and the meaning of metaphor that found in Emily Dickinson’s poems. In this study, he selected 10 poems by Emily Dickinson and he applied stylistic approach. As the result, she found that in ten of Emily Dickinson’s poems it contains 36 metaphorical expressios. Thus, the researcher can adapted the method and the way he collect the data from the poems as well as the step to analyze the metaphor.
The similarity of the researcher’s analysis and the five prior previous studies is in the object of the study, which is metaphor. While the differences of the study is in subject of the analysis. The researcher uses Emily Dickinson’s poems, those I Felt a Funeral in My Brain, Because I could Not Stop for Death and I Heard a Fly
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia Buzz – when I Died which means different from the first previous study that used Anne Bradstreet’s poem as the subject. The second previous study used Maya Angelou’s poems, the third prior used Andrea Hirata’s Edensor, the fourth previous study used Maya Angelou’s Caged Bird and the last prior of the previous studies used 10 selected of Emily Dickinson’s poems.
2.2 Theoretical Framework 2.2.1 Stylistic Approach
Language is the raw material for the authors, and from that raw material the authors have their own style in producing a literary work that called as a style.
Abrams (1981) stated that language style is a way of using language in essays, or how the author expresses something that will be stated. In the other word language style is a way of expressing ideas and feelings in a specific language by using a creativity, personality, and character of the author to achieve certain effects which is the aesthetic effect, the poetic effect and the effect of creating meaning.
In order to analyze the meaning and language style used in certain literary work the researcher will used stylistics approach. Abrams stated that stylistic is the science to analyze the used of language in literature. Wellek and Werren (1977) in their book entitled Theory of Literature defined that stylistic is the study of a work of art or a group of works which are to be described in terms of their aesthetic function and meaning. Some expert believe that stylistic is the study of the use of language that applied linguistics concept that concerned with the study of style in texts that appear in literary works. The researcher conclude that stylistic can also
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia called as literary linguistics, is the process of analyzing literary works by examining the elements of language contain in certain literary work by applied linguistics concept.
Wellek and Warren (1977), argue that there are two possible methods of approaching stylistic analysis. The first is proceed a systematic analysis of its linguistic system and to interpret its features, in terms of the aesthetic purpose of the work, as "total meaning." In this first way of analyzing, the style will appears as the typical linguistic system of a work, or a group of works. The second approach is to study a number of characteristics that distinguish one system with another. The method used in this approach contrast. We observe the normal usage, and try to discover their aesthetic purpose. Thus, as the aim of this study is to find the metaphor that appear in Emily Dickinson’s poems and to find the implicit meaning of metaphor found in Emily Dickinson’s poems, the researcher believe that the second approach is suitable with this study.
2.2.2 Poem
Poets will express their feelings into a literary work that they created, one of them is poem. Poem is very closely related to beautiful language, the implicit meanings, language style which have deep meanings that become the representative of a poet's feelings about some event or experience around them.
2.2.2.1 The Definition of Poem
In general, poem can be defined as one of the literary work that comes from the expression of poets. This literary work is based on the expression of poet's feelings by using beautiful words which contains meaning, rhythm, rhyme,
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia dimensions and verses. In order to gain a specific meaning of a poem, the researcher will refer to the definition of poem according to some experts. William Wordswoth defined poem as the spontaneous overflow of the powerfull feelings.
Laurance Perrine (1969) in her book entitled Sound and Sense : An Introduction to Poetry, defined poem as kind of language that says more intensly than does ordinary language. From Perrine’s statement, it can be says that poem is a literary work that mostly used certain language that is not ordinary language used in daily conversation.
2.2.2.2 The Elements of Poem
Poem becomes one of the literary work that is loved by many people because of the aesthetic elements contained in the poem itswlf. These elements can make a poem into a beautiful literary work. Laurence Perrine I her book entitled Sound and Sense : An Introduction to Poetry (1969), argue that elements of poem are divided into two which are extrinsic elements and intrinsic elements. Extrinsic elements of poem are poem-forming elements that build from the outside such as, baskground of the author, elements of value and elements of society. While the intrinsic element of poetry are imagery, rhythm, rhym, tone and figurative language that will be explained further below based on Perrine’s theory in her book entitled Sound and Sense : An Introduction of Poetry.
A. Imagery
Perrine defined imagery as the representation that exist in poem through language of sense experience. In the other word imagery is the representative used by poets to strengthen the readings of the reader's thoughts and feelings that are closely
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia related to sensory experience. There are five kinds of imagery, visual (image), auditory (sound), gustatory (taste), olfactory (smell), tacticle (touch) and kinesthetic (tension).
B. Rhythm
The word rhythm comes from greek which is rhythmos it means “measured motion”. Rhythm is one of the elements of poem that demonstrates the long and short patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables in poem. Basically, Rhythm can be described as the beat and pace of a poem. Perrine argue that rhythm refers to any wavelike of motion or sound in poem.
C. Rhyme
In general, rhyme can be defined as the repetition of similar sounds appear in poem. Or it can be simplified that rhymes are repetitions of sounds in words or syllables in a poem. Ferrine defined rhyme as the agreement between the word and syllable. We can find rhyme in poem such as fight, tight, night.
D. Tone
Tone is the attitude of a poets in their poetry to show the effect that is felt by the reader. Tone is the way the poets conveys their poem based on their choice of words. Tone can be defined as the emotional meaning by the poets in their poem an can be the important part of the whole meaning in the poem. The tone that is used by the poets can be indicated by the speaker’s voice appear in the poem.
E. Figurative Language
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia Figurative language is commonly applied in poem. Figurative language can simply defined as language that used symbols to describe other things. According to Perrine (1969), figurative language devided into twelve which are simile, personification, apostrophe, synecdoche, metonymy, symbol, allegory, paradox, irony, hyperbole, understatement and metaphor. Considering the limitations of this study, the researcher will only focus on metaphor as the figurative language that become the object of this research.
2.2.3 Metaphor
For most people, metaphor is a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish from an ordinary language become extraordinary language. In general, metaphor can be defined as the figure of speech which makes an implicit or hidden comparison between two different things. Lakoff and Johnson (2003) believe that metaphor is not only about linguistics expression nor limited to literature only. In order to gain more specific definition and theory of metaphor, the researcher used Theory of Literature by Wellek and Warren as the references for the concept of metaphor.
2.2.3.1 The Definition of Metaphor
George Lakoff (1993), in his book entitled The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor argue that the word metaphor was defined as a novel or poetic linguistics expression in which one or more words for a concept are used outside of its normal in conventional meaning in order to express a similar concept. From Lakoff and Johnson theory, we can defined metaphor as the figurative language
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia when one or more words are used outside their normal conventional meaning to express the similar concept and expression that produce the implicit meaning.
Matthew (1997), define metaphor as the figure of speech where a word expressions normally being used for one kind of object, action, act and its extended to another. From the arguments given by Matthew, we can affirm that metaphors are figurative languages that use expressions to express certain object, action or other things that will be extended to another meaning.
2.2.3.2 The Concept of Metaphor
Wellek and Warren (1977) in their book entitled Theory of Literature, argue that there are four basic elements of metaphor. Those four basic elements in their conception of metaphor would appear as: the analogy, the double vision, the sensuous image which can reveal things that can't be seen and as the animistic projection. Those four basic elements are not in equal measure cause the types and thestyle of metaphor are always change in each country and developing in each period.
Metaphor is the thing that are inherent in our daily lives. Believe it or not, we use metaphors unconsciously everyday. I.A Richard (1942) as stated by Wellek and Warren argue that we used the metaphor unconsciously in our daily conversation like the term of “the leg of the chair” and “the neck of the bottle”, where we combine the part of human body with the objects. Richard stated that we have to consider that metaphor is the principle that always exi st in each language.
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia Peck and Coyle (1984), believe that metaphor is the best choice for describing some phenomenon in reality when the literal cannot. From their argument, we can assume that the concept of using a metaphor in certain literary work is in order to describe something more aesthetic and the purpose of the metaphor is to explain how a phenomenon are extremely nice, sad, shocking or other by using the figure of speech with the aim of adding the essence and aesthetic effect that it cannot be done only by using the literal language.
Perrine (1969), in her book Sound and Sense : An Introduction of Poetry argue that there are a similarity between simile and metaphor. Both simile and metaphor are comparing two different things that unlike. But we can see the distinction between them in the use of connective words. In simile, the poets used as, like, similar to, than and seems. While in metaphor, the comparison between those two things are implied and has an implicit meaning.
2.2.3.3 The Types of Metaphor
According to Lakoff and Johnson (2003), metaphor can be devided into two which are conventional metaphor or dead metaphor and conceptual metaphor or live metaphor. The conventional metaphor is the metaphor that always be used in in daily experience so it lose its aesthetic value. The example of dead metaphor are “the leg of the chair”, “the foot of the mountain” and “time is running out”.
While the new metaphor or conceptual metaphor is a metaphor which still maintains its metaphorical value and can create new meaning. To comprehend the meaning of conceptual metaphor, we need an extra efford to reveal the hidden message or the implicit meaning of its metaphor. Lakoff and Johnson devided the
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia conceptual metaphor into three types which are structural metaphor, ontological metaphor and orientational metaphor.
A. Structural Metaphor
In Metaphor We Live by, Lakoff and Johnson (2003), defined structural metaphor as the metaphor in which one concept is being metaphorically structured in terms of another structure or concept. This kind of metaphor involve the structuring of kind of experience or activity in term of another experience or activity. It can be said that the concept of structural metaphor is to enable the speakers to understand target A by means the structure of another thing which is target B. The target B here act as the source to understand the target A. Structural metaphor has certain concept which are the concept of love, the concept of social organizations, and the concept of life. For example: “life is journey”. This phrase is reflected in our everyday language in the conversation and there are a wide variety of expressions as can be expressed become: “my life is stuck and not going anywhere”, “he had a huge start in his life”, “her life is in the final line”. Another example is “time is money”, from this metaphorical, we can expressed into “you waste your time”,
“you throw your time for two years”.
B. Ontological Metaphor
Ontological metaphor is the metaphor in which the abstraction in activity, emotion, or even idea are represented as something concrete, such as an object, substance, container, or person. Lakoff and Johshon argue that the functions of ontological metaphor are to understanding the terms of objects and substances that allow us to choose parts from those experience and treat them as separate entities
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia and classify them, categorize them, group them, and quantify them also to know the means of them and the reason about them. Actually, ontological is the part of philosophy that has to do with the natural existence. Thus, ontological metaphor can be devided into 4 category, which are:
a. Entitiy Metaphor
This metaphor represent the concept as the concrete physical object. For example:
“that was a beautiful catch”, in this sentence the concept of catch is metaphorically structured as a nice and good looking. Another example is “my brain isn’t operating today”, in this sentence the concept of brain is metaphorically structured as a machine that can’t be operate.
b. Substance Metaphor
The substance metaphor is the metaphor in which an abstraction, such as an event, activity, emotion, or idea are represented as the material. For example:
“there are a lot of good sprinting in the race”, “the party was so much fun” and “I couldn’t do much sprinting until the end”. In substance metaphor the bounded objects, whether it is human beings, rocks, or land areas and anything, they have sizes. Thus, it allows them to be quantified in terms of the amount of substance they contain.
c. Container Metaphor
In this type of metaphor, the metaphorical expressions has a concept of being the container. Just like the container, the concept has inside and outside, and it has the capability to hold something like the real container. For example “her voice carry
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia a huge meaning”, “her brain is packed with the crazy thing”, “my life is empty without her”. The word carry, packed and empty have the concept like the container.
d. Personification
Lakoff and Johnson (2003), argue that personification is the part of ontological metaphor. They defined metaphor as the nonhuman or abstract entities experiences human motivations, characteristic, or activities. For example:
“lightning danced across the sky”, in this sentence the nonhuman abstraction which is lightning is attributed human characteristic which is dancing. Another example is “I heard the last slice of cake calling my name”, in this sentence, the nonhuman abstraction which is lslice of cake, attributed human characteristic which is calling.
C. Orientational Metaphor
Another kind of metaphore introduce by Lakoff and Johnson in 2003 is orientational metaphor, which is the metaphor that not used structure as one concept in terms of another but instead organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another. This orientational metaphor is mostly related to spatial orientation such as up and down, in and out, fornt and back, on and off, deep and shallow and center and peripherals. This spatial orientation arises from facts that we have bodies that they function as they do in our physical environment. The orientation metaphor provides the concept of spatial orientation, for example:
“happy is up”, we know the fact that the concept of “happy” is oriented to English expressions like "I'm feeling up today”. The phrase “happy is up” is the
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia spatial orientation of “up and down”, so we can assume that “Happy is up” while
“sad is down”. Another example: “I'm feeling up”, “you boosted my spirit”, “I’m feeling down”, “I fell into a depressions”.
2.2.4 Meaning
In recent years, the existence and importance of the problem of "meaning" have been generally admitted and needs serious attention. If we consider the attitude towards language implied by verses such as those contained in poetry, we can know that the use of words as if the meaning is fixed, constant effort and contain metaphors. In general, meaning can be devided into two types, there are explicit and implicit meaning. Due to the limitation of this study, the researcher will only focus on the implicit meaning.
2.2.4.1 The Definition of Meaning
In general, meaning is defined as the message conveyed by words, sentence, phrase and symbols in context. Lyons (1981), defined meaning as the idea or concept which can be transferred from the mind of the listener by embodying them as they were in the form of one language or another. I.A Richard (1982), in his book entitled The Meaning of Meaning, believe that meaning is essentially personal, what anything means depends on who means it.
2.2.4.2 Kinds of Meaning
Larson (1998), argue that there are two types of meaning, there are explicit meaning, that easily can be understood, and implicit meaning, something that not expressed clearly.
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia A. Explicit Meaning
Larson (1998), stated that explicit meaning is the meaning that easily can be understood, it contains the information which stated by lexical items and grammatical forms. The example of explicit meaning is “what is your name?”, this sentences contain an explicit meaning, which is the sentence that easily to be understood, is when someone ask about your name, and soen’t mean anything else. Another example of explicit meaning can be found in daily conversation like
“this is my book”.
B. Implicit Meaning
Implicit meaning is something that not expressed clearly and directly, thus, it needs and effort to understand what the speaker mean. Larson (1998), argue that in the process of understanding the implicit meaning, the listener sometimes have to get more effort and need the proper interpretation by the imagery, or interpretation.
Thus, in order to understand the implicit meaning contain in certain text or poem, we need to know the references first. The theory proposed by Halliday and Hassan on 1976 defines three types of references, they are:
a. Personal References
Personal reference is the references by means the function in the speech situation, through the category of person in which it represent the person. It include personal pronouns which are I, you, we, he, she, it, they and possessive determiner, my, and your. For example: “there was a called from Ryry”. She just said, “I lost my wallet”. Those sentence contains personal pronoun which are I
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia and she and both pronoun refers to Ryry, since she is the only person being called from those sentence.
b. Demonstraive Reference
This reference is in the form of verbal pointing. The speaker will determine the referenced by the closeness. They are adverbial: here, there, now and then. While for nominal it include: this, these, that, those and the. The adverbial refers to location of a process in space of time, while nomial reference refers to location of person or object or something that has known before. For example: “Azalea lost her jewelry last night”, “those are really expensive, and that was the careless action”. The first response word is those that refers to jewelry, and that refers to lost.
c. Comparative Reference
Comparative reference is the reference in which using the comparison to compare certain thing and can refers to something else. Halliday and Hassan argue that there are two types of comparative reference, there are general comparison, include: same, similar, different and it expressed the likeness and unlikeness of certain thing. For example: “it is a similar car to the one that parked in Gygy”s garage”, in the sentences it contsined the comparative reference similar to the one car that parked in Gygy garage. While the next is particular comparison in which to compare the quantity and quality. Include less, fewes, as for quantity, and more, better, so for quality. For example: “the score that I got today is better than the one I got last week.
