HISTORY
The History of School Psychology: Understanding the Past to Not Repeat It Introduction to the History of Psychology
School psychology is obviously a complex, if not the most complex, area of study in all of psychology. This is because of the great number of clients that must be served effectively when working with children and the complex relationships children have with parents, family, and peers (Reynolds & Gutkin, 1999). Certainly, parents, teachers, classroom peers, siblings, others living in the home, community members, and the child themselves must often be provided with psychological services. This has created what some have called the paradox of school psychology (Reynolds & Gutkin). If you want to facilitate change in a child or in a child’s life you must work with adults. This can be quite different that other areas of clinical practice where one might be able to work with a single client (Carlson & Christenson, 2005).
However, the need to focus on adults has created a quandary in the field in that the main area of study, which started with a focus on individual children, has now moved to include a larger group of individuals including teachers, parents, and others. While the main thrust of the field certainly included a focus on significant others in the child’s life, the study of children was always paramount (e.g., see Witmer, 1907, 1911). During the last three decades the field has struggled to move from a focus on individual children to more work with families, learning, and systems like hospitals and the educational enterprise (Conoley, 1989, 1992/1997; Conoley & Gutkin, 1995;
Plas, 1986). As a result, how does one decide what variables should be explored when studying the history of school psychology?
Should we focus on the children that need psychological services? Should we focus on school teachers or parents? Should we study the first school psychologist? Should the field focus on the research covered in its primary journals like School Psychology Quarterly and School Psychology Review? Should we focus on the associations that claim to guide the field such as the Division of School Psychology (Number 16) of the American Psychological Association (APA) and/or the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP)? Should we study what practices are advocated by seminal books? She we focus on individual authors rated as the most productive scholars in our field (e.g., C. Reynolds and M. Bray)? Should we consult leaders like journal editors, Fellows of Division 16, or Diplomates of the American Board of Professional Psychology?
Should we study the editorial board members that help decide what is published in our journals?
Should we study the faculty and curriculum of popular longstanding school psychology programs?
Actually, all of these areas provide important information and a glimpse of how the past links to
the future. The purpose of this chapter is to define school psychology, understand other definitions in the areas of psychology and education, study past and present influences in the field of psychology, recognize history makers, and understand where the field has been and where it is going. While space does not permit a comprehensive consideration of all of these areas, we hope to mention the many influences that are leading us on our way to the future.
Lightner Witmer sering dikreditkan dengan konseptualisasi mendasar dari psikologi sekolah dan psikologi klinis (Altmaier & Meyer, 1985; Brotemarkle, 1931; Eiserer, 1963; Magary, 1967;
Reynolds, Gutkin, Elliott, & Witt, 1984). Untuk memahami pandangannya, perlu diperhatikan latar belakangnya. Kehidupan profesional Witmer dimulai sebagai guru bahasa Inggris dan sejarah di Rugby Academy di Philadelphia (Brotemarkle). Dalam setting ini, Witmer tergelitik oleh fakta bahwa beberapa siswa tidak belajar terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa mereka tampak termotivasi dan cerdas (Brotemarkle; Collins, 1931; Gray, 1963; Witmer, 1907). Paradoks inilah yang mendorong studinya tentang psikologi pertama di University of Pennsylvania dan kemudian di Universitas Leipzig. Di bawah arahan James Cattell, dan kemudian Wilhelm Wundt, Witmer mulai merumuskan pendekatan ilmiahnya untuk psikologi terapan (Boring, 1950; Brotemarkle; Garfield, 1985; McReynolds, 1987).Despite the fact that Lightner Witmer is always credited with being the first school psychologist few have asked the essential question who trained Lightner Witmer?
Lightner Witmer (like all students today) had to make a decision concerning what to study and where to study after he decided to pursue a doctoral degree. Just like many students today he wanted to study people, especially children. Where should he go to study psychology? No accreditation system was in place so he had to study the contributions of individual faculty to decide which program to select. Psychology was a new field and only a few institutions offered such training. In addition, not many offered training with a clear focus on children--which appeared to be his key interest. But one faculty member in Germany, located at one of the largest and most celebrated universities in Europe, at that time, had begun the study of psychology (Benjamin, Durkin, Link, Vestal, & Acord, 1992). His name was Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt. In 1879, Dr. Wundt founded a laboratory for the study of psychological research (Myers, 2010).
Interestingly, instead of devoting himself to the study of philosophy or physiology he devoted himself to the development of a new science, the science of psychology (Wilhelm Wundt, 2009). A physiology laboratory was already in place at the University of Leipzig and so was a laboratory for the study of philosophy. So he could have joined either of these already established research centers. But he believed neither of the centers had the focus that he thought was needed for
empirical study. Thus, it is important to consider his background to understand his beliefs and future aspirations (Wilhelm Wundt).
Initially, Wundt studied medicine and graduated from Heidelberg in 1856 (Wilhelm Wundt, 2009). But then he made a major decision which was to influence his path and future research.
Wundt studied briefly with Johannes Peter Muller and then became an assistant to the prominent physicist and physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz in 1858. Hemann von Helmholz initially was trained as a physician but spend much of his free time studying mathematics and philosophy. He was a prolific author and published a number of important papers in a variety of subjects--these included work in mathematics of the eye, theories of vision, and sensation of tone. In the area of physics, he is known for his theories on the conservation of energy and mechanical thermodynamics. Von Helmholz also studied the philosophy of science, and the laws of perception (Helmholtz & Cahan, 2005; Herman von Helmholtz, 2009; Myers, 2010). The unifying element of all of his activities was his focus on empirical research. In honor of his dedication to empirical research, a large German association of research institutions is named after him, the Helmholtz Association (Herman von Helmholtz). Thus, it seems, the importance of empirical research, an amazing dedication to broad-based work, and a strong work ethic were also major components of Von Helmholtz’s laboratory. Wundt published several important texts and papers while working with von Helmholtz. Indeed, he published the first of what was to become his five volume experimental psychology textbook. He also taught the first course ever offered in scientific psychology (Bringmann, 1975; Greenwood, 2003; Myers). Wundt spent around a decade working in Von Helmholtz’s laboratory even though some indicated they did not get alone well (Benjamin et al., 1992; Wilhelm Wundt, 2009)
Lightner Witmer’s Approach to Psychology
Witmer's empirical approach to applied psychology was a departure from the introspective focus of the times (Leahey, 1980; Woodworth, 1948). In light of Witmer's experimental training with Wundt, it is surprising to find Witmer continuing in his commitment to an unquestionably practical psychology (e.g., focusing on children's problems; Leahey, 1980; Witmer, 1907, 1911).
Indeed, early in this century the union of experimental and applied psychology created the kind of cross-fertilization Witmer (1896, 1897, 1907) had in mind. With Witmer’s leadership psychology moved off the couch and into the laboratory. This was the opposite direction Dr.
Sigmund Freud seemed to be advocating in his book with Breuer (1895) entitled Studies on Hysteria (Studies on Hysteria, 2009).
The Clinical Psychology-School Psychology Split
A great deal of evidence supports the hypothesis that World War II had a major impact on our current conception of psychological specialties (Altmaier & Meyer, 1985; Reynolds, et al., 1984).
With war time stress came a considerable number of psychiatric casualties. However, few trained psychologists were available to meet these needs. In addition, because such a wide variety of psychological problems existed, the role of the service provider was quickly expanded to meet the needs of both diagnosis and ongoing treatment often focusing on psychotherapy. To be sure, the needs of the Veterans Administration (VA) were instrumental in providing support for applied psychologists through both training grants and expanding employment opportunities immediately after the Second World War. Indeed, the VA was the major employer of what are now seen as clinical psychologists. It was at this time that the notion of "clinical psychology" began to be considered. The subspecialty can be followed most directly to a 1947 APA committee on training in "clinical psychology" (see Committee on Training in Clinical Psychology, 1947).
Important Dates Relevant to School Psychology
1879 Wilhelm Wundt founds Psychology Laboratory at the University of Leipzig for research and training
1892 Founding of the American Psychological Association 1895 Freud publishes his book Studies on Hysteria
1896 Professor Lightner Witmer established first Psychological Clinic at the University of Pennsylvania to train students
1915 Gesell appointed as the first school psychologist
1928 New York University offers first school psychology training program 1945 APA reorganizes and School Psychology Division 16 is founded
1947 Beginning of what was to become the America Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) to certify advanced psychological competence
1953 APA publishes its first Code of Ethics
1964 First examination in professional psychological practice used by state licensing boards 1967 ABPP Diplomate specialty in school psychology developed
1969 Founding of the National Association of School Psychologists
1971 APA accreditations the first school psychology program at the University of Texas-Austin 1981 APA publishes Specialty Guidelines, including those for school psychology
1988 NASP begins the National School Psychology Certification System
Adapted from the American Psychological Association 2009a, Myers, 2010, and Fagan and Wise 2007.
20 Influential Books that Continue to Offer Relevance Today (by First Year Printed).
1. Bower, E. M. (1955). The school psychologist. Sacramento, CA: California State Department of Education.
2. Cutts, N. E. (Ed.). (1955). School psychologists at mid-century. Washington D.C.: APA.
3. White, M. A., & Harris, M. W. (1961). The school psychologist. New York: Harper & Row.
4. Eiserer, P. E. (1963). The school psychologist. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Research in Education.
5. Gray, S. W. (1963). The psychologist in the schools. New York: Holt, Rienhart and Winston.
6. Valett, R. E. (1963). The practice of school psychology: Professional problems. New York:
Wiley.
7. Reger, R. (1965). School psychology. Springfield, IL: Charles Thomas.
8. Bardon, J. I., & Bennett, V. C. (1974). School psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall.
9. Sattler, J. M. (1974). Assessment of children’s intelligence. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
10. Reynolds, C. R., & Gutkin, T. B. (Eds.). (1982). The handbook of school psychology. New York: Wiley.
11. Hynd, G. W. (1983). The school psychologist: An introduction. Syracuse University Press 12. Reynolds, C. R., Gutkin, T. B., Elliott, S. N., & Witt, J. C. (1984). School
psychology: Essentials of theory and practice. New York: Wiley.
13. Thomas, A., & Grimes, J. (Eds.) (1985). Best practices in school psychology.
National Association of School Psychologists: Washington, DC.
14. Brown, D., Pryzwansky, W. B., & Schulte, A. C. (1987). Psychological
consultation: Introduction to theory and practice. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
15. D'Amato, R. C., & Dean, R. S. (Eds.). (1989). The school psychologist in nontraditional settings: Integrating clients, services, and settings. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
16. Ysseldyke, J.E., Reynolds, M.C., & Weinberg, R.A. (1989). School psychology: A blueprint
for training and practice. Minneapolis, MN: National School Psychology In- service Training.
17. Jacob, S., & Hartshorne, T. S. (1991). Ethics and law for school psychologists.
Brandon, VT: Clinical Psychology Publishing.
18. Fagan, T. K., & Wise, P.S. (1994). School psychology: Past, present, and future. White Plains, NY: Longman.
19. D’Amato, R. C., Fletcher-Janzen, E., & Reynolds, C. R. (Eds.). (2005). Handbook of school neuropsychology. New York, NY: Wiley.
20. Merrell, K. W., Ervin, R. A., & Gimpel, G. A. (2006). School psychology for the 21st century: Foundations and practice. New York: Guilford.
Sejarah Psikologi Sekolah: Memahami Masa Lalu untuk Tidak Mengulanginya
Pengantar Sejarah Psikologi
Psikologi sekolah jelas merupakan area studi yang kompleks, jika bukan yang paling kompleks dalam semua psikologi. Ini karena banyaknya klien yang harus dilayani secara efektif saat bekerja dengan anak-anak dan hubungan kompleks yang dimiliki anak dengan orang tua, keluarga, dan teman sebaya (Reynolds & Gutkin, 1999). Pastinya, orang tua, guru, rekan kelas, saudara kandung, orang lain yang tinggal di rumah, anggota masyarakat, dan si anak sendiri seringkali harus diberi layanan psikologis. Ini telah menciptakan beberapa yang disebut paradoks psikologi sekolah (Reynolds & Gutkin). Jika Anda ingin memfasilitasi perubahan pada anak atau dalam kehidupan anak Anda harus bekerja dengan orang dewasa. Ini bisa sangat berbeda dengan bidang praktik klinis lainnya dimana orang bisa bekerja dengan satu klien (Carlson &
Christenson, 2005).
Namun, kebutuhan untuk berfokus pada orang dewasa telah menciptakan kebingungan di lapangan karena area studi utama, yang dimulai dengan fokus pada anak-anak individu, sekarang telah bergerak untuk memasukkan kelompok individu yang lebih besar termasuk guru, orang tua, dan orang tua lainnya. Sementara dorongan utama lapangan tentu termasuk fokus pada hal-hal
penting lainnya dalam kehidupan anak, studi tentang anak-anak selalu penting (misalnya, lihat Witmer, 1907, 1911). Selama tiga dekade terakhir, lapangan telah berjuang untuk beralih dari fokus pada anak-anak individu untuk lebih banyak bekerja dengan keluarga, pembelajaran, dan sistem seperti rumah sakit dan perusahaan pendidikan (Conoley, 1989, 1992/1997; Conoley &
Gutkin, 1995; Plas, 1986). Akibatnya, bagaimana seseorang menentukan variabel apa yang harus dieksplorasi saat mempelajari sejarah psikologi sekolah?
Haruskah kita fokus pada anak-anak yang membutuhkan layanan psikologis? Haruskah kita fokus pada guru sekolah atau orang tua? Haruskah kita belajar psikolog sekolah pertama?
Haruskah bidang fokus pada penelitian yang tercakup dalam jurnal utamanya seperti Psychological Quarterly and School Psychology Review School? Haruskah kita memusatkan perhatian pada asosiasi yang mengklaim untuk membimbing bidang seperti Divisi Psikologi Sekolah (Nomor 16) dari American Psychological Association (APA) dan / atau National Association of School Psychologists (NASP)? Haruskah kita mempelajari praktik apa yang dianjurkan oleh buku mani? Dia memusatkan perhatian pada pengarang individual yang dinilai sebagai sarjana paling produktif di bidang kami (misalnya, C. Reynolds dan M. Bray)? Haruskah kita berkonsultasi dengan para pemimpin seperti editor jurnal, Fellows of Division 16, atau Diplomates of American Board of Professional Psychology? Haruskah kita mempelajari anggota dewan editorial yang membantu memutuskan apa yang dipublikasikan di jurnal kita? Haruskah kita mempelajari fakultas dan kurikulum program psikologi sekolah lama yang populer?
Sebenarnya, semua area ini memberikan informasi penting dan sekilas bagaimana masa lalu terhubung ke masa depan. Tujuan bab ini adalah untuk mendefinisikan psikologi sekolah, memahami definisi lain di bidang psikologi dan pendidikan, mempelajari pengaruh masa lalu dan sekarang di bidang psikologi, mengenali pembuat sejarah, dan memahami di mana bidang itu berada dan ke mana tujuannya. Meskipun ruang tidak mengizinkan pertimbangan menyeluruh dari semua bidang ini, kami berharap dapat menyebutkan banyak pengaruh yang membawa kita dalam perjalanan menuju masa depan.
Lightner Witmer sering dikreditkan dengan konseptualisasi mendasar dari psikologi sekolah dan psikologi klinis (Altmaier & Meyer, 1985; Brotemarkle, 1931; Eiserer, 1963; Magary, 1967;
Reynolds, Gutkin, Elliott, & Witt, 1984). Untuk memahami pandangannya, perlu diperhatikan latar belakangnya. Kehidupan profesional Witmer dimulai sebagai guru bahasa Inggris dan sejarah di Rugby Academy di Philadelphia (Brotemarkle). Dalam setting ini, Witmer tergelitik
oleh fakta bahwa beberapa siswa tidak belajar terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa mereka tampak termotivasi dan cerdas (Brotemarkle; Collins, 1931; Gray, 1963; Witmer, 1907). Paradoks inilah yang mendorong studinya tentang psikologi pertama di University of Pennsylvania dan kemudian di Universitas Leipzig. Di bawah arahan James Cattell, dan kemudian Wilhelm Wundt, Witmer mulai merumuskan pendekatan ilmiahnya untuk psikologi terapan (Boring, 1950; Brotemarkle; Garfield, 1985; McReynolds, 1987).
Wilhelm Wundt dan Pentingnya Memilih Mentor
Terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa Lightner Witmer selalu dikreditkan sebagai psikolog sekolah pertama, beberapa orang telah mengajukan pertanyaan penting yang melatih Lightner Witmer?
Lightner Witmer (seperti semua siswa saat ini) harus membuat keputusan mengenai apa yang harus dipelajari dan tempat belajar setelah dia memutuskan untuk mengikuti gelar doktor. Sama seperti banyak siswa saat ini ia ingin belajar orang, terutama anak-anak. Ke mana dia harus pergi untuk belajar psikologi? Tidak ada sistem akreditasi yang ada sehingga ia harus mempelajari kontribusi fakultas individual untuk menentukan program mana yang akan dipilih. Psikologi adalah bidang baru dan hanya sedikit institusi yang menawarkan pelatihan semacam itu. Selain itu, tidak banyak yang menawarkan pelatihan dengan fokus yang jelas pada anak-anak - yang tampaknya menjadi minat utamanya. Tapi satu anggota fakultas di Jerman, yang berada di salah satu universitas terbesar dan paling terkenal di Eropa, pada waktu itu, telah memulai studi psikologi (Benjamin, Durkin, Link, Vestal, & Acord, 1992). Namanya Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt. Pada tahun 1879, Dr. Wundt mendirikan sebuah laboratorium untuk studi penelitian psikologis (Myers, 2010). Menariknya, alih-alih mengabdikan dirinya untuk mempelajari filsafat atau fisiologi, dia mengabdikan dirinya untuk pengembangan sains baru, ilmu psikologi (Wilhelm Wundt, 2009). Laboratorium fisiologi sudah ada di Universitas Leipzig dan juga laboratorium untuk studi filsafat. Jadi dia bisa bergabung dengan salah satu pusat penelitian yang sudah mapan ini. Tapi dia yakin tidak ada pusat yang memiliki fokus yang dia pikir dibutuhkan untuk studi empiris. Jadi, penting untuk mempertimbangkan latar belakangnya untuk memahami keyakinan dan aspirasi masa depannya (Wilhelm Wundt).
Awalnya, Wundt belajar kedokteran dan lulus dari Heidelberg pada tahun 1856 (Wilhelm Wundt, 2009). Tapi kemudian dia mengambil keputusan besar untuk mempengaruhi jalannya dan penelitian masa depannya. Wundt belajar secara singkat dengan Johannes Peter Muller dan
kemudian menjadi asisten fisikawan dan ahli fisiologi terkemuka Hermann von Helmholtz pada tahun 1858. Hemann von Helmholz awalnya dilatih sebagai dokter namun menghabiskan banyak waktu luangnya untuk belajar matematika dan filsafat. Dia adalah seorang penulis yang produktif dan menerbitkan sejumlah makalah penting dalam berbagai mata pelajaran - ini termasuk karya matematika mata, teori penglihatan, dan sensasi nada. Di bidang fisika, ia dikenal karena teorinya tentang konservasi energi dan termodinamika mekanis. Von Helmholz juga mempelajari filsafat sains, dan hukum persepsi (Helmholtz & Cahan, 2005; Herman von Helmholtz, 2009;
Myers, 2010). Unsur pemersatu dari semua kegiatannya adalah fokusnya pada penelitian empiris.
Untuk menghormati dedikasinya terhadap penelitian empiris, sebuah asosiasi besar lembaga penelitian Jerman dinamai menurut namanya, Asosiasi Helmholtz (Herman von Helmholtz).
Jadi, tampaknya, pentingnya penelitian empiris, dedikasi yang luar biasa untuk pekerjaan berbasis luas, dan etos kerja yang kuat juga merupakan komponen utama laboratorium Von Helmholtz. Wundt menerbitkan beberapa teks dan makalah penting saat bekerja dengan von Helmholtz. Memang, dia menerbitkan buku pertama yang menjadi buku teks psikologi eksperimental kelas lima. Dia juga mengajar kursus pertama yang ditawarkan dalam psikologi ilmiah (Bringmann, 1975; Greenwood, 2003; Myers). Wundt menghabiskan sekitar satu dekade bekerja di laboratorium Von Helmholtz meskipun beberapa mengindikasikan bahwa mereka tidak sembuh sendiri (Benjamin et al., 1992; Wilhelm Wundt, 2009)
Pendekatan Lightner Witmer terhadap Psikologi
Pendekatan empiris Witmer terhadap psikologi terapan adalah kepergian dari fokus introspektif zaman ini (Leahey, 1980; Woodworth, 1948). Mengingat pelatihan eksperimental Witmer dengan Wundt, mengejutkan Witmer melanjutkan komitmennya terhadap psikologi praktis yang tidak diragukan lagi (mis., Berfokus pada masalah anak-anak; Leahey, 1980; Witmer, 1907, 1911).
Memang, di awal abad ini penyatuan psikologi eksperimental dan terapan menciptakan semacam pembuktian silang yang dimiliki Witmer (1896, 1897, 1907). Dengan psikologi kepemimpinan Witmer pindah dari sofa dan masuk ke laboratorium. Ini adalah arah yang berlawanan Dr.
Sigmund Freud tampaknya menganjurkan dalam bukunya dengan Breuer (1895) berjudul Studies on Hysteria (Studies on Hysteria, 2009).
Pemisahan Psikologi Klinis dan Psikologi Sekolah
Banyak bukti mendukung hipotesis bahwa Perang Dunia II memiliki dampak besar pada konsepsi spesialisasi psikologis kita saat ini (Altmaier & Meyer, 1985; Reynolds, et al., 1984).
Dengan tekanan waktu perang, sejumlah besar korban jiwa mengalami kejiwaan. Namun, hanya sedikit psikolog terlatih yang tersedia untuk memenuhi kebutuhan ini. Selain itu, karena berbagai macam masalah psikologis ada, peran penyedia layanan cepat berkembang untuk memenuhi kebutuhan diagnosis dan perawatan berkelanjutan yang sering berfokus pada psikoterapi. Yang pasti, kebutuhan Administrasi Veteran (VA) berperan penting dalam memberikan dukungan bagi psikolog terapan melalui hibah pelatihan dan memperluas kesempatan kerja segera setelah Perang Dunia Kedua. Memang, VA adalah majikan utama dari apa yang sekarang dilihat sebagai psikolog klinis. Pada saat itulah gagasan "psikologi klinis" mulai dipertimbangkan.
Subspesialisasi dapat diikuti paling langsung ke komite APA 1947 tentang pelatihan dalam
"psikologi klinis" (lihat Komite Pelatihan Psikologi Klinis, 1947).
Tanggal Penting yang Berhubungan dengan Psikologi Sekolah
1879 Wilhelm Wundt mendirikan Laboratorium Psikologi di Universitas Leipzig untuk penelitian dan pelatihan
1892 Pendiri American Psychological Association 1895 Freud menerbitkan bukunya Studies on Hysteria
1896 Profesor Lightner Witmer mendirikan Klinik Psikologi pertama di University of Pennsylvania untuk melatih siswa
1915 Gesell ditunjuk sebagai psikolog sekolah pertama
1928 New York University menawarkan program pelatihan psikologi sekolah pertama 1945 APA mereorganisasi dan Divisi Psikologi Sekolah 16 didirikan
1947 Awal dari apa yang akan menjadi Dewan Psikologi Profesional Amerika (ABPP) untuk mengesahkan kompetensi psikologis lanjutan
1953 APA menerbitkan Kode Etik pertamanya
1964 Ujian pertama dalam praktik psikologis profesional yang digunakan oleh dewan perizinan negara
1967 ABPP Spesialisasi diplomasi di bidang psikologi sekolah berkembang 1969 Pendiri National Association of School Psychologists
Akreditasi 1971 APA merupakan program psikologi sekolah pertama di University of Texas- Austin
1981 APA menerbitkan Pedoman Khusus, termasuk untuk psikologi sekolah 1988 NASP memulai Sistem Sertifikasi Psikologi Sekolah Nasional
Diadaptasi dari American Psychological Association 2009a, Myers, 2010, dan Fagan dan Wise 2007.
20 Buku Berpengaruh yang Terus Menawarkan Relevansi Hari Ini (Tahun Pertama Dicetak).
1. Bower, E. M. (1955). The school psychologist. Sacramento, CA: California State Department of Education.
2. Cutts, N. E. (Ed.). (1955). School psychologists at mid-century. Washington D.C.: APA.
3. White, M. A., & Harris, M. W. (1961). The school psychologist. New York: Harper & Row.
4. Eiserer, P. E. (1963). The school psychologist. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Research in Education.
5. Gray, S. W. (1963). The psychologist in the schools. New York: Holt, Rienhart and Winston.
6. Valett, R. E. (1963). The practice of school psychology: Professional problems. New York: Wiley.
7. Reger, R. (1965). School psychology. Springfield, IL: Charles Thomas.
8. Bardon, J. I., & Bennett, V. C. (1974). School psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
9. Sattler, J. M. (1974). Assessment of children’s intelligence. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
10. Reynolds, C. R., & Gutkin, T. B. (Eds.). (1982). The handbook of school psychology.
New York: Wiley.
11. Hynd, G. W. (1983). The school psychologist: An introduction. Syracuse University Press 12. Reynolds, C. R., Gutkin, T. B., Elliott, S. N., & Witt, J. C. (1984). School
psychology: Essentials of theory and practice. New York: Wiley.
13. Thomas, A., & Grimes, J. (Eds.) (1985). Best practices in school psychology.
National Association of School Psychologists: Washington, DC.
14. Brown, D., Pryzwansky, W. B., & Schulte, A. C. (1987). Psychological
consultation: Introduction to theory and practice. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
15. D'Amato, R. C., & Dean, R. S. (Eds.). (1989). The school psychologist in nontraditional settings: Integrating clients, services, and settings. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
16. Ysseldyke, J.E., Reynolds, M.C., & Weinberg, R.A. (1989). School psychology: A blueprint
a. for training and practice. Minneapolis, MN: National School Psychology In-service Training.
17. Jacob, S., & Hartshorne, T. S. (1991). Ethics and law for school psychologists.
Brandon, VT: Clinical Psychology Publishing.
18. Fagan, T. K., & Wise, P.S. (1994). School psychology: Past, present, and future. White a. Plains, NY: Longman.
19. D’Amato, R. C., Fletcher-Janzen, E., & Reynolds, C. R. (Eds.). (2005). Handbook of school neuropsychology. New York, NY: Wiley.
20. Merrell, K. W., Ervin, R. A., & Gimpel, G. A. (2006). School psychology for the 21st century: Foundations and practice. New York: Guilford.
Sumber : Running head: THE HISTORY OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY The History of School Psychology: Understanding the Past to Not Repeat It Rik Carl D’Amato (University of Macau, China)
Christina Zafiris & Jackson Memorial Hospital (University of Miami Medical School) Erica McConnell (University of Northern Colorado)
Raymond S. Dean (Ball State University)
