A Cyberpragmatic Study of Youtube Comments

(1)

Yufni Faisol, Syofyan Hadi, Reflinaldi, Wahyudi Rahmat /JG.2021.V7i2/(267-286)

CYBERACTIVISM IN PALESTINIAN CONFLICT NEWS COMMENTS ON AL-JEZEERA YOUTUBE CHANNEL: A CYBERPRAGMATIC

STUDY

AKTIVISME SIBER DALAM KOMENTAR BERITA KONFLIK PALESTINA DI KANAL YOUTUBE AL-JAZEERA: KAJIAN

SIBERPRAGMATIK

Yufni Faisol¹⁾, Syofyan Hadi²⁾, Reflinaldi³⁾, Wahyudi Rahmat⁴⁾

1,2,3)UIN Imam Bonjol, Padang 4)STKIP PGRI Sumatera Barat - Universiti Malaysia Kelantan,

1Email:[email protected],

2Email:[email protected]

Submitted: 29-06-2021, Reviewed: 04-08-2021, Accepted: 30-10-2021 https://doi.org/10.22202/JG.2021.V7i2.4954

Abstract

Youtube has become an online protest media that is used to trigger and escalate conflicts in various countries.This study explains illocutionary speech acts in the comments on the Palestinian conflict news on the Al-Jazeera Youtube channel. This type of qualitative research takes 5 news reports of the attack on the Al-Aqsa mosque complex by the Israeli military published on May 10, 2021, as data sources. Data were collected through internet archive documentation techniques and listening techniques without engaging in conversation. The data that has been classified on the data card was then analyzed by the matching method following the stages of qualitative analysis. The researchers found 720 illocutionary speech acts consisting of 4 types: representative, directive, expressive, and commissive. Representative speech acts were found in 25 utterances (4%), a directive in 320 utterances (44%), expressive in 282 utterances (39%), and commissive in 93 utterances (13%). From a function perspective, illocutionary utterances in the data source contain the functions of stating, inviting, pleading, demanding, condolence, anger, criticizing, promising, and threatening. The types and functions of illocutionary speech acts found were closely related to the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. From these utterances, the speakers try to mobilize cyberactivism to generate public resistance against the Israeli occupation.

Keywords:Cyberactivism, illocutionary speech acts, Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Youtube, Al-

Jazeera Channel

Abstrak

Youtube menjadi media protes online yang dimanfaatkan untuk memicu dan mengeskalasi konflik di berbagai Negara. Penelitian ini menguraikan tindak tutur ilokusioner dalam komentar berita konflik Palestina di channel Youtube Al-Jazeera. Penelitian jenis kualitatif ini mengambil 5 berita penyerangan komplek masjid Al-Aqsa oleh militer Israel yang dipublikasikan pada 10 Mei 2021 sebagai sumber data.

Data dikumpulkan melalui teknik dokumentasi arsip internet dan teknik simak bebas libat cakap. Data yang telah diklasifikasin pada kartu data kemudian dianalisis dengan metode padan mengikuti tahapan

(2)

kerja analisis kualitatif.Peneliti menemukan sebanyak 720 tindak tutur ilokusioner yang terdiri atas 4 jenis: representatif, direktif, eskpresif, dan komisif. Tindak tutur representatif ditemukan pada 25 tuturan (4%), direktif pada 320 tuturan (44%), ekspresif pada 282 tuturan (39%), dan komisif pada 93 tuturan (13%). Dari perspektif fungsi, tuturan ilokusioner pada sumber data memuat fungsi menyatakan, mengajak, memohon, menuntut, bersimpati, marah, mengkritik, berjanji, dan mengancam. Jenis dan fungsi tindak tutur ilokusioner yang ditemukan sangat berhubungan erat dengan konteks konflik Israel- Palestina. Dari tuturan-tuturan tersebut, penutur berupaya menggerakkan siber aktivisme untuk membangkitkan perlawanan masyarakat melawan penjajajahan Israel.

Kata kunci:aktivismesiber, tindaktuturilokusioner, konflik Israel-Palestina, Youtube, KanalAl-Jazeera 1. INTRODUCTION

As one of the most widely used social media, Youtube has become a new platform to represent activism(Andén-Papadopoulos, 2020b, 2020a). However, in the experience of the Arab Spring in the Middle East, Youtube has become an online protest medium that is used to trigger and escalate conflicts in various countries. Studies of (Al-Rawi, 2014; Karolak, 2017; Markham, 2014) prove that the protests of a group of youths grew because of the massive distribution of videos through Youtube. This situation presents new potential problems, considering that the number of social media users, including Youtube in the Middle East, increases from year to year(Reyaee & Ahmed, 2015). It means users can easily use Youtube as a medium to launch propaganda and trigger conflict.

In line with this reality, Youtube users' political potential is an urgent object to be studied (Arthurs et al., 2018; Snelson et al., 2012). In the scope of linguistics, attention to the phenomenon of language use on Youtube can be seen in studies of (Al-Tamimi et al., 2017;

Asghar et al., 2015; Hassan, 2019; Perrino, 2017).(Al-Tamimi et al., 2017; Asghar et al., 2015) analyzed the sentiments of the Arab community in their comments on the Youtube news channel.

These two studies quantitatively and qualitatively mapped the frequency of positive and negative comments identified from the user's choice of language. In the wider research landscape, the same orientation can also be found in studies of(Abozinadah et al., 2015; Mubarak et al., 2017, 2020). In principle, these studies seek to trace the use of offensive and abusive language that has the potential to trigger social conflict.

Based on another perspective, studies of (Hassan, 2019; Perrino, 2017) observed the events of user speech in the Youtube comments column. These two studies are closely related to pragmatic approaches but are in different focuses and orientations. A study of (Hassan, 2019) showed that user comments on Arabic Youtube channels were dominated by impolite language.

Meanwhile, the findings of (Perrino, 2017) showed that the expression of racism is one of the most widespread phenomena in the Youtube comments column. These findings are increasingly triggering great attention to language expression on Youtube and social media in general.

Various studies are deliberately designed to minimize negative content that can trigger conflict(Alsafari et al., 2020). It is further confirmed that social media should be a priority for today's linguistic studies(Kern et al., 2016; Snelson et al., 2012).

Observing the constellation of linguistic studies on the phenomenon of language on Youtube, the researchers see a great opportunity to examine the news of the Palestinian conflict

(3)

recently escalated(Al-Jazeera, 2021c, 2021d). As an objective reality, the Palestinian conflict is the longest in the Middle East(Regan, 2020; Scheindlin & Waxman, 2016; Shafir, 2017). The display of the conflict on various social media has attracted the attention of many users to respond(Mor et al., 2016; Törnberg & Törnberg, 2016). In line with that, the language used by users in the comments column is very diverse. For example, news of the Israeli army attack on the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound in the last days of Ramadan 2021 has garnered an average of 800 comments per video containing responses from various perspectives(Al-Jazeera, 2021a, 2021b).

Comments on the news of the attack on the Al-Aqsa Mosque complex deserve to be studied from the perspective of illocutionary speech act theory. This research will present at least two types of novelty. First, novelty from the perspective aspect, because the previous study did not apply the illocutionary speech act theory.Second, novelty from the object aspect, because previous research did not examine the news of the Palestinian conflict. In addition, looking at the description of the existing lingual data, this study also plays a role in predicting the movement of the Palestinian people's conflict and resistance. As explained in studies(Alberdi & Are, 2009;

Bruns et al., 2013), the phenomenon of comments on social media is the beginning of the emergence of resistance. Naturally, the languages used by commentators build an area of

cyberactivism which in the end has the potential to escalate protests on a larger scale (Armstrong, 2015; Breuer et al., 2015).

The illocutionary speech act theory was developed by(Koller & Searle, 1970) to refute the speech act theory(Austin, 1962). Because of(Loar & Searle, 1982; Searle, 1976), the speech act theory proposed by (Austin, 1962) has several weaknesses. Austin is considered to have failed to distinguish between illocutionary acts and illocutionary verbs. This error causes taxonomy and classification to overlap so that speech tends to overlap when classified.

Furthermore,(Loar & Searle, 1982; Searle, 1976) stated that(Austin, 1962) did not have a consistent principle based on taxonomic construction.(Searle, 1976) argues that illocutionary acts are the basic unit of human linguistic communication. In every speech event, humans essentially communicate the actions they take or want to do. Because of its urgency and existence, illocutionary speech acts also become a minimal complete unit of human linguistic communication(Blackburn & Searle, 1999).

In line with his rebuttal to the classification of speech acts formulated by (Austin, 1962), (Blackburn & Searle, 1999; Searle, 1976) compiles the typology of illocutionary speech acts into five types: assertive; directive; commissive; expressive; declarative. Assertive speech acts are utterances that bind the listener to the truth of the proposition. This type aims to present a proposition as a representation of a situation. Among its functions are statements, descriptions, classifications, explanations. Directive speech acts are utterances that aim to ask the interlocutor to do what the speaker wants. Among its functions are inviting, pleading, and demanding.Commissive speech acts are utterances that aim to build the speaker's commitment to carry out the actions he says. Among its functions are promises, vows, guarantees, threats.

Expressive speech acts are speeches that reveal the psychological condition of the speaker.

(4)

Among its functions are apologizing, thanking, congratulating, condolence, and anger.

Declarative speech acts are speeches that aim to change the status of the interlocutor.

2. METHOD

This type of research is descriptive qualitative. According to the argument of(Neuman, 2007), the qualitative orientation of this research lies in the involvement of the context at the stage of analyzing the lingual data of illocutionary speech acts. In addition, this research is also classified as qualitative due to the background of the situation and the orientation of the theory.

According to the argument of (Moleong, 2005), this qualitative value is due to a natural process in the research series, where there is no intervention to the data and process. Emphasizing these qualitative dimensions, according to(Hadi, 2001), this study places theory as a blueprint in the analysis process, not a hypothesis that will be tested in the research process. Meanwhile, the descriptive value of this research lies in the description and analysis of objective and actual data, without justification for positivism which is the characteristic of the prescriptive approach (Moleong, 2005; Neuman, 2007).

The data was taken from the AlJazeera Channel Youtube channel ةريزجلاةا which can be accessed at the link https://www.youtube.com/c/aljazeera/featured. This selection was based on the high popularity of Al-Jazeera's Youtube channel as one of the giants of Arab mass media.

With a high number of subscribers (8.69 million), this channel has reached various countries. In addition, the total views that have reached more than 3 billion also illustrate the number of users and news seekers accessing the channel. This indicator is important in selecting data sources because the wide range of data and user access will present rich and varied lingual data in the comments column. Based on these indicators, the author can observe comprehensive data since it represents the thoughts of various users from various countries.

In line with that, the author chose the news about the attack on the Al-Aqsa Mosque by the Israeli army as a source of data. In addition to having many comments, news related to the Al-Aqsa Mosque attack was also chosen for reasons of sensitivity of the issue. The news has angered the majority of the country and Muslims, one of the reasons is that the attack took place on the last day of the holy and highly respected month of Ramadan. To obtain sufficient and comprehensive data, the researchers chose 5 news about the attack published on May 10, 2021.

The 5 news includes a detailed chronology of events starting from the siege, the attack to the evacuation of the worshippers out of the Al-Aqsa Mosque complex. Details of the 5 news sources of the data can be seen in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Detail of Data Sources

Title Video Link Number of Comments

يليئارسلا للاتحا تاوق ماحاقح ةرشابم روص ىصقلا دجسملل

suwarmubasharah li

iqtihamquwwatal-ihtilalal-isrāl̄ li al-masjid al-aqsa

‘Live report: Israeli occupation

https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=axwb9ywDRGs 830

(5)

forces storm Al-Aqsa Mosque

دجسملا لخاد نم نيفعسملاو ةيبطلا مقاوطلا درط هتاتاسو ىصقلا tardal-tawaqimal-tibbiyahwaal- mus’if̄n min dakhil al-masjid al-aqsa wasahatih

‘Medical staff and paramedics were expelled from Al-Aqsa Mosque and the area around the mosque’

watch?v=sqvlHAuFoWs 771

ىصقلا دجسملا لخاد نم ةيت تاثاغاسا - لجاع

‘ajil – istighathathayyah min dakhil al-masjid al-aqsa

‘Breaking News- Live report from Al-Aqsa Mosque’

watch?v=YrOTT0fOF8k 165

لخاد تاطبارملا ىلع للاتحا تاوق ءاداعا ىصقلا دجسملا i’tida’ quwwatal-ihtilal ‘ala al- murabitatdakhil al-masjid al-aqsa

‘Occupation forces attack congregation inside Al-Aqsa Mosque

watch?v=5spB5fmOeSs 92

دجاسملا لخاد نيزجاحملا نيطبارملا جورخ ةظحل ىصقلا تاتاس ىلإ laḥahkhurujal-murabit̄nal-

muhtajiz̄ndakhil al-masjid ila sahatal-aqsa

‘When the worshippers leave the Al- Aqsa courtyard’

watch?v=n1YcjipcrAI 91

Total 1.949

The first stage of data collection was carried out using internet archive documentation techniques(Gunn & Faire, 2011). The researchers downloaded the data using the Youtube Comments Downloader application (https://youtubecommentsdownloader.com/) which was accessed online and printed all the data onto paper. In the next stage, the free-of-conversation listening technique (Mahsun, 2005; Rahardjo, 2002) was used to read the data carefully. At this stage, the data containing the illocutionary speech acts were marked. To ensure that all data were observed properly, the reading stage was repeated up to seven times. In the next stage, the

(6)

marked data were inventoried and tabulated. The data were then grouped into data cards that have been classified based on the types of illocutionary speech acts referred to (1) representative;

(2) directive; (3) expressive; (4) commissive; (5) declarative. In the process, the researchers make relevant reflective notes to answer the research questions(Lune & Berg, 2017).

After being classified into each card, the data were analyzed using the matching method(Sudaryanto, 2001). At this stage, the researchers involved a context outside the language in describing the illocutionary speech acts that are the object of research. The involvement of non-language context refers to the SPEAKING theory proposed by(Hymes, 2009). In analyzing the overall data, the researchers refer to the qualitative analysis stages proposed by(Lune & Berg, 2017), namely: data reduction; display data; conclusion, and verification. In the data reduction stage, the researchers extract the data by selecting the core utterances. At the data display stage, the researchers present the data that is considered the most relevant and representative to explain the results of the analysis. The selected data was then described and concluded. At the verification stage, the researchers re-checked the suitability of the data analysis results with the context of the data.

The results of data analysis are presented using informal and formal methods(Rahardjo, 2002). The implementation of these two methods in the presentation of data analysis is to use words as narratives that explain the data and special signs or symbols such as large curly brackets ({...}), regular brackets (...), and brackets, double slashes (/.../) to support analysis of certain features. The Arabic-Latin transliteration used in writing refers to the standard ALA-LC Romanization.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results

Based on the results of data analysis, 720 illocutionary speech acts were found in the comments on the Palestinian conflict news on the Al-Jazeera Youtube channel. The number of speech acts consists of four types: representative, directive, expressive, and commissive.It was found 25 (4%) representative speech acts, 320 (44%) directive speech acts, 282 (39%) expressive speech acts, 93 (13%) commissive speech acts. The distribution of the number and presentation of each type of illocutionary speech act is shown in Figure 1.

(7)

Figure 1. Percentage of Types of Illocutionary Speech Acts

In representative speech acts, the function of the state was found in 25 utterances (35%).

In directive speech acts, the function of inviting was found in 62 utterances (86%), pleading in 205 utterances (28.5%), and demanding in 53 utterances (7.4%). In expressive speech acts, there were condolence functions in 103 utterances (14.3%), anger in 118 utterances (16.4%), and criticism in 61 utterances (8.5%). Meanwhile, in commissive speech acts, the promise function was found in 24 utterances (3.3%) and threatening in 69 utterances (9.5%). The distribution, number, and percentage of functions in each type of speech act can be seen in table 2.

Table 2. Functions of Illocutionary Speech Acts in Each Type No. Type Function Quantitative Percentage

1 Representative Stating 25 3,5%

2 Directive Inviting 62 8,6%

Pleading 205 28,5%

Demanding 53 7,4%

3 Expressive Condolence 103 14,3%

Anger 118 16,4%

Criticism 61 8,5%

4 Commissive Promising 24 3,3%

Threatening 69 9,5%

Total 720 100%

Representative Speech Acts

The representative speech acts found in the data sources relate to the facts stated by the commentators about the Palestinian conflict. In this case, the representative speech acts discuss various data regarding the events of Israeli aggression, the involvement of foreign countries, victims of attacks, and the process of evacuating refugees to various neighboring countries. In line with that, the function of the representative speech act found is "stating". Among the forms of representative speech, acts can be seen in data 1.

Data 1. Representative Speech Acts with “Stating” Function

(8)

Arabic Data : ...ةنس لك تارايلملاب ليئارسإ عم رجااي و ةيليئارسإ ةرافس دلب يف هدنع ناغودرأ عم نيعبطملا ربكأ نم ...ماعلا لوط ىلع هدلبل نييليئارسإ حايسلا لوخدب حمسي

هاوس سيل و طقف ا هىدأ رارتلا نيطسلف ...ايكرت ةلود يه ليئارسإ Latin

Transliteration : Erdogan ‘indahu fi̅ biladsafa̅rahIsra̅i̅liyahwayuta̅jiruma’aIsra̅i̅l bi al-milya̅ra̅tkullasanah... yasmahu bi dukhu̅lial-siya̅h Isra̅i̅liyyi̅n li bila̅dihi ‘alatul al-‘a̅m... min akbaral- mutbi’i̅nma’aIsra̅i̅lhiyadawlahTurkiya̅... Filasti̅n al- ahraradda̅huAlla̅hta’a̅la̅ faqat walaysasiwa̅hu.

English

Translation : ‘Erdogan has an Israeli embassy in his country and conducts billions of trade deals with Israel every year... Israeli tourists are allowed to enter his country all year round... One of Israel's greatest allies in the state of Turkey... The independence of Palestine is only in the power of Allah, nothing else.’

The function of stating in the representative speech acts above lies in the facts about RecepTayyipErdogan and the country of Turkey mentioned by the speaker. The speaker stated at least three pieces of information in the utterance. The first information is the existence of the Israeli embassy in Turkey. The second information is trade transactions between Israel and Turkey which reach billions per year. The third piece of information is the permission granted by Turkey to Israeli tourists to enter their country throughout the year. The value of the statement of the speech is emphasized because the information that is the content of the speech can be measured for its truth through data and facts in the field.

The function, target, and content of the speech acts of representative speech act in the data source are shown in table 3 below.

Table 3. Function, target, and Content of Representative Speech Acts

Function Target Content

Stating Fellow commentator of the Al-Jazeera Youtube channel

Israeli aggression events;

Involvement of foreign countries;

Attack victim data;

Refugee evacuation process Directive Speech Acts

As an utterance that aims to ask the interlocutor to act as the speaker wishes, the directive speech act found in the data source consists of several functions. The first function is "demand".

Directive utterances with a demanding function relate to the speaker's demands on various parties to behave and participate in the conflict experienced by the Palestinian population.

Among the targets of the speaker's request are the Muslimsin the world, leaders of allied countries, the Israeli army, resistance groups, and the United States government. The directive speech act with the demanding function is shown in data 2.

Data 2. Directive Speech Acts with “Demanding” Function

Arabic Data : هيلإ أجلن ضرلا هجو ىلع ملسم مكات كانه سيلف .لخدالاب ناغودرأ بلاطن

(9)

Latin

Transliteration : Nuta̅lib Erdogan bi al-tadakhkhul. Fa laysa huna̅ka ha̅kim muslim ‘ala̅ wajh al-ard naljau ilayh.

English

Translation : ‘We demand Erdogan to intervene. No more Muslim rulers in the world could be expected.’

The function of demanding in the directive speech above lies in the point of the speaker's intention through the sentence بلا /nuṭa̅lib/ 'we demand'. In the context of the speech, the speaker demanded that RecepTayyipErdogan, the president of Turkey, intervene in overcoming the Israeli aggression against Palestine. In addition to the lingual evidence, the value of the claim can also be seen from the meaning of the utterance. In the speech, the speaker said no more Muslim rulers could be expected to help Palestine. Thus, speakers consider Erdogan's involvement in the Palestinian conflict to be very important. Erdogan is the only person who can be expected to help, so he must be demanded to give his policy to get involved in the conflict.

The second function found in directive speech acts is "pleading". In contrast to demand, this function appears in a speech addressed to God. The function of speech is pleading because the speaker as a human cannot intervene with God. Among the contents of the speech that contains this function is a request to strengthen the Palestinian people, destroy the Israeli occupation, soften the hearts of the rulers to assist and protect the holy land of Jerusalem from various potential damages caused by Israeli aggression. The directive speech act with the pleading function is shown in data 3.

Data 3. Directive Speech Acts with "Pleading" Function

Arabic Data : .نيعلملا ةنياهصلاب كيلع و .كليبس يف نيدهاجملا و نيطبارملا انناوخإ رصنا مهللا نيملاعلا بر اي مهمادقأ تحت نم ضرلا لزلز و مهلمش تاش مهللا Latin

Transliteration : Alla̅hummaunsurikhwa̅nana̅ al-mura̅biti̅nwaal-muja̅hidi̅n fi̅

sabi̅lik. Wa ‘alayka bi al-saha̅yanah al-mala̅’i̅n.

Alla̅hummashattitshama̅lahumwazalzil al-ard min tahtaqda̅mihimya̅ rabb al-‘a̅lami̅n.

English

Translation : ‘O Allah, help our brothers who are struggling in Your path.

And destroy the accursed zionists. O Allah, dissolve their union and shake the earth from under their feet, O Lord of the worlds.’

In the speech above, the function of pleading is reflected in the word مهللا /Alla̅humma/ 'ya Allah' which appears twice and ا /ya̅ Rabb/ 'ya Allah' which appears once. These two words are an appeal and a call to God, always used as an opening request. As far as the writers find, only a few forms of application are not preceded by the exclamation word. In the context of data 3 above, the pleading function is strengthened by the existence of points of request submitted by the speaker. First, the speaker asks God to help the Palestinian people who are his fellow Muslims. Second, the speaker asks God to destroy the zionists by shaking the earth. By positioning God as the target of speech, the function of pleadingsimultaneously reflects the speaker's weakness and powerlessness to take the action he wants in his speech.

The third function found in directive speech is "inviting". The distinction of this function compared with the functions of "demanding" and "pleading" which has been explained

(10)

previously, lies in the intention of the speech and the interlocutor. In the aspect of speech intention, the inviting function is persuasive, in contrast to the demanding function which is interactive. In the aspect of the interlocutor, the function of inviting is spoken to the citizens of the world outside Palestine, in contrast to the function of pleading whose speech is addressed to God. In line with this, one of the contents of the speech that contains this function is an invitation to help the Palestinian people, either directly or indirectly. The directive speech act with the inviting function is shown in data 4.

Data 4. Directive Speech Acts with "Inviting" Function

Arabic Data : بعش ىلع نيحلسملا نيربجاملا ةينويهصلا ىلع لزعلا نيينيطسلفلا انناوخإ رصنأ فيعض Latin

Transliteration : Unsurikhwa̅nana̅ al-filasti̅niyyi̅n al-‘azl ‘ala̅ al-sahyu̅niyyahal- mutajabbiri̅nal-muslihi̅n ‘ala̅ sha’bda’i̅f.

English

Translate : ‘Help our defenseless Palestinian brothers and sisters against Zionism, the armed occupiers who oppress the weak.’

In the speech above, the function of inviting is reflected in the lingual feature of the command word /unṣur/ 'help'. The command word has a persuasive meaning because it does not interfere with the interlocutor who is invited. In data 3, the speaker invites to help the Palestinian people who are in trouble due to Israeli aggression. The speaker does not explicitly mention the form of assistance that can be given. In line with the function of speech intended to invite, the speakers try to win the sympathy of the interlocutor. The speaker mentions the difficult situation experienced by the Palestinian people so that the interlocutor can sympathize and accept his invitation. The data shows that the speaker mentions that the Palestinian people are in a weak condition, while Israel is in an armed condition and has the power to oppress.

The function, target, and content of the directive speech act utterances in the data source are shown in table 4 below.

Table 4. Functions, Targets, and Content of Directive Speech Acts

Demanding Muslims in the world;

Leaders of allied countries;

Israeli Army;

Resistance groups; United States of America

Assist;

Carry out political diplomacy for a ceasefire;

Stop the attack;

Consistent struggle;

Stop intervening

Pleading God Strengthen the Palestinian people;

Destroy the Israeli invaders;

Soften the hearts of rulers;

Protecting the holy land of Jerusalem Inviting Citizens of the world

outside Palestine Assisting the Palestinian people Expressive Speech Acts

(11)

The humanitarian conflict that occurred in Palestine gave rise to many expressions expressed in speeches in the world. In line with this, in the context of the data source, the expressive speech acts found contain several functions. The first function is "condolence". This function is found in utterances addressed to Palestinians. In the speech, the speaker expresses his sadness over the disaster and suffering experienced by the Palestinians. Expressive speech acts with condolence functions are shown in data 5.

Data 5. Expressive Speech Acts with “Condolence” Function Arabic Data : ناوهلا و نذلا نمز يف لاجرلا مانأ .نيطسلف لها اي ا مكل

Latin

Transliteration : Lakum Alla̅h ya̅ ahl filasti̅n. Antum al-rija̅l fi̅ zaman al-dhun wa al-hawa̅n.

English

Translation : ‘Allah is with you, O Palestinians. You are people who live in an age of sin and humiliation.’

In the speech above, the function of condolence is reflected in the use of the clauseنيطسللهااهللامكل /LakumAlla̅hya̅ ahlfilasṭi̅n/ 'Allah is with you, Palestinians'. This lingual feature implies the speaker's expression of sadness and grief seeing the conditions experienced by Palestinians. Furthermore, the speaker added that the Palestinian people are living in an age of sin and humiliation. This utterance implies that the Palestinian people are a sign of the coming of the end times, where oppression, sin, and humiliation abounded.Thus, in line with the function of speech, the speaker intends to emphasize his sympathy for the Palestinian people through these expressions.

The second function found in expressive speech acts is "anger". Speakers address speeches containing the function of anger to Israeli soldiers, Muslims in various countries, governments in various parts of the world, and resistance groups. The point or substance of the speaker's anger is a conflict situation that is considered intentionally left by these groups.

Speakers think that the world does not care about the suffering of the Palestinian people, does not want to unite against the colonization of humanity, and there are still some people who make fun of this difficult situation. Expressive speech acts with angry functions are shown in data 6.

Data 6. Expressive Speech Acts with “Anger” Function

Arabic Data : ؟ةينيدلا تاسسؤملا نيأ ؟انرومأ ةحو و انماكت نيأ ،نولاقي انناوخإ و ،حاباست اناسدقم نيفئاخ ح و مهلك وتام لوقعم ؟ءاوس ىلع نوعبطملا نيأ و ؟تاراعشلا باحصأ نيأ

؟نوسرحات ح و ؟؟وتومي!

Latin

Transliteration : Muqaddasatuna̅ tustaba̅h, wa ikhwa̅nuna̅ yuqtalu̅n, ayna hukka̅muna̅ wa wala̅h umu̅rina̅!? Ayna al-muassasa̅t al- di̅niyyah? Ayna asha̅b al-shi’a̅ra̅t? Wa ayna al-mutbi’u̅n ‘ala̅

sawa̅’? ma’qu̅l ma̅tu̅ kulluhum wa la̅ kha̅ifi̅n yamu̅tu̅?? Wa la̅

tataharrasu̅n?!

English

Translation : ‘Our holy land was taken away, our brothers and sisters killed, where are our rulers and protectors? Where are the religious institutions? Where are the authorities? And where are the allies? Could they all die and not be afraid to die??

And didn't you watch?!’

(12)

In the expressive speech above, the function of anger can be seen from the speaker's emotions which directs his speech to many parties. Speakers are angry with the rulers, religious leaders, military officers, and cooperating allies. The speaker's angry expression is reflected in the sentence ؟ءاىلنوعبطملا؟تاراعشلابا؟ةينيدلاتحا؟اةحانما / Aynaal-muassasa̅tal-di̅niyyah? Aynaaṣḥa̅bal- shi'a̅ra̅t?Waaynaal-muṭbi'u̅n 'ala̅ sawa̅'?/'where are our rulers and protectors? Where are the religious institutions? Where are the authorities? And where are the allies’. In the speaker's view, all of these parties did not contribute to lightening the burden of the Palestinian people. They become indifferent when their brothers in religion and humanity are being oppressed.

The third function found in the expressive speech act is "criticizing". In contrast to speech that contains the function of anger, this speech is addressed to those whom the speaker considershaving changed the purpose of the struggle. Those who used to be serious and consistent in fighting for Palestinian independence now tend not to care about the aggression carried out by Israel. Among the objects of criticism that are the targets of the speech are the Palestinian president, Mahmud Abbas, who is considered not to have a clear vision of the struggle; neighboring countries that are considered no longer seriously against Israel, such as Iran and Turkey; resistance groups that have always been at the forefront of the struggle such as Fattah and Hamas. Expressive speech acts with the function of criticizing are shown in data 7.

Data 7. Expressive Speech Acts with “Criticizing” Function Arabic Data : ؟مه نيأ .لئاضفلا يقاب و .سامت ةكرت و حااف ةكرت .ةمواقملا دايسأ نيأ

Latin

Transliteration : Ayna asya̅du al-muqa̅wamah. Harakah Fatta̅h wa harakah Hamma̅s. Wa ba̅qi̅ al-fada̅il. Ayna hum?

English

Translation : ‘Where are the resistance groups? Fatah and Hamas. And other helpers. Where are they?’

Arabic Data : نورصاحم مهف ئيش مهنم رظانت ح Latin

Transliteration : La̅ tantạir minhum shay’ fahum muha̅saru̅n English

Translation : ‘Don't expect anything from them, they've been taken, hostage.’

In the expressive speech above, the function of criticizing lies in the harsh satire given by the speaker to Fattah and Hamas. Previously, these two groups were icons of resistance that consistently fought for Palestinian independence. However, now the two groups are considered no longer able to be expected to defend the Palestinian people who are oppressed through Israeli aggression. From the aspect of lingual features, the criticizing function is reflected in the sentence نورصاح /La̅ tantaẓirminhum shay' fahummuha̅ṣaru̅n/ 'don't expect anything from them, they have been taken hostage'. The speaker criticized Fattah and Hamas for being held hostage to certain political interests, so they can not longer act freely as they wish. The important point that distinguishes the function of anger and criticism is the target of speech. The critical function is

(13)

specifically addressed to groups that have been directly involved in the previous Palestinian conflict.

The functions, targets, and contents of expressive speech act in the data source are shown in table 5 below.

Table 5. Functions, Targets, and Content of Expressive Speech Acts

Condolence Palestinian people Grief over for the disaster and suffering experienced by the Palestinian people Anger Israeli Army;

Muslim in the world;

Governments in various countries;

Resistance group

Condemn violence;

Condemn indifference;

Condemn various negative political maneuvers;

Reply to banter criticize Palestinian President;

allied countries;

Resistance group

Protests for lack of action;

Protest for non-seriousness;

Protest for inconsistency Commissive Speech Acts

The humanitarian conflict in Palestine triggered various reactions which were expressed in commissive speeches.Among the research findings show that speakers issue commissive utterances that bind themselves to do something in the future. Based on the analysis, the commissive speech acts found contain two functions. The first function is "promise". In this function, speakers pledge their partisanship to the Palestinian people. Implicitly, they positioned the Palestinian people as opponents of speech who accepted the promise. Among the contents of the commissive speech with the promise,a function is to always pray for the safety of the Palestinian people and always be ready if allowed to fight with the Palestinian people.

Commissive speech acts with promise function are shown in data 8.

Data 8.Commissive Speech Acts with the “Promise” Function

Arabic Data : باهرلا ءحؤه ىلع ملسسل رصنلا و لاطبأ اي مكعم و سدقلا عم انلك ءلبرك نم ربربلا بصاغملا نايكلا.

Latin

Transliteration : Min Karbala̅ kulluna̅ ma’a al-Quds wa ma’akum ya̅ abta̅l wa al-nasr li al-Isla̅m ‘ala̅ ha̅ula̅’ al-irha̅b al-kiya̅n al-mughtasib al-barbar.

English

Translation : ‘From Karbala, we are all with Jerusalem and with you, heroes. Victory for Islam over terrorism, this barbarian group seized power.’

In the commissive speech above, the speaker promised to accompany the struggle of the Palestinian people. From the conceptual aspect, this utterance automatically binds the speaker to act consistently until the future. Lingual data showing the promise function is found in لاامكعمسدقلاانلءح /Min Karbala̅ kulluna̅ ma'a al-Quds wama'akumya̅ abṭa̅l/ From Karbala we are all with Jerusalem and with you, heroes. Speakers who are territorially in Karbala promise to

(14)

continue participating in the struggle of the Palestinian people against Israeli aggression. In the speech, the speaker does not explicitly mention the form of struggle he will do in the future.

The second function found in commissive speech is "threatening". In this function, the speaker poses a threat to the interlocutor regarding something that he ensures will happen in the future.

The target of the threat is the Israeli army and the United States and its allies. In this context, the speaker conveys religious doctrines obtained from the holy Qur'an. The speaker believes that the interlocutor who is the target of the threat will experience bad luck as promised in the holy book.

Among the contents of commissive speech with a threat function are the punishment of hell that will happen to Israel, the bad fate of the invaders that they will feel in the world, and the rise of Muslims who will defeat the United States and its allies. Commissive speech acts with threat function are shown in data 9.

Data 9.Commissive Speech Acts with “Threatening” Function Arabic Data : ىلع ملظلا علخني فوس .نيدسفملا ءحؤه عم نيعبطملل لوقي نأ ا ىسع اذامب

رارتأ مه و نيدبعاسم نيعبطملا لود ءانبأ نودهاشي فوس و ،نيينيطسلفلا.

Latin

Transliteration : Bi ma̅dha̅ ‘asa Allah an yaqu̅la li al-mutbi’i̅n ma’a ha̅ula̅’ al- mufsidi̅n. Sawfa yankhali’u al-̣ulm ‘ala̅ al-filasti̅niyyi̅n, wa sawfa yusha̅hidu̅n abna̅’ duwal al-mutbi’i̅n musta’bidi̅n wa hum ahra̅r.

English

Translation : ‘What might God say to these destroyers. Injustice to the Palestinians will be reversed to them, and they will see the children of the allied countries enslaved when they are free.’

In the commissive speech above, the speakers threaten the interlocutor with bad luck that they will soon feel it in the world. Conceptually, it automatically demands speakers to prove the threat in the future. Lingual data showing a threatening function is found in نيينيطسلفلاىلملظلاعلخني /Sawfayankhali'u al-ẓulm 'ala̅ al-filasṭi̅niyyi̅n/ 'injustice to the Palestinians will be reversed. The speaker believes in himself that the oppression experienced by the Palestinian people will end someday. At that time, the situation will be reversed, where the children of the occupiers will be enslaved, while the children of Palestine will be free.

The function, target, and content of commissive speech act in the data source are shown in table 6 below.

Table 6. Functions, Targets, and Content of Commissive Speech Acts

Promise Palestinian people Always pray for safety;

Always ready to fight

Threatening Israeli Army The punishment of hell in the Hereafter;

Bad luck in the world;

The rise of Muslims in the road Discussion

(15)

The analysis of illocutionary speech acts shows various actions spoken by commentators on the Al-Jazeera Youtube channel on reporting on the Israeli army attack on the Al-Aqsa Mosque complex. There are 4 types of speech acts and 9 speech functions found in the data source reflecting the context of the situation being faced by the speaker. From all the data found, the most dominant context is the socio-political situation of the Palestinian conflict which is heating up again. The findings on the source are based on the context of the attack on the Al- Aqsa Mosque complex, the seizure of land in the Sheikh Jarrah area, the arrest of activists who opposed the occupation of Israeli settlers in Sheikh Jarrah, and community demonstrations that occurred during the trial process for the dispute over the area of Sheikh Jarrah.

The most dominant illocutionary speech acts in the data source are directives with pleading function (28.5%), expressive with anger function (16.4%), and expressive with condolence function (14.3%). Based on the aspects of speech components proposed (Hymes, 2009), the dominance of the type of speech act is influenced by the context of the speech. The status of the Al-Aqsa Mosque complex as the object of an Israeli army attack evokes religious sentiments so that speakers evoke a sense of religiosity by praying to God.

Attacks using weapons caused many casualties and injuries, including children and women. It has resulted in public anger which ultimately expressed anger through expressive speech with the function of anger. Meanwhile, the public response saw that the number of victims was the main cause of expressive speech with a sympathetic function. Based on the arguments(Austin, 1962; Koller & Searle, 1970; Loar & Searle, 1982), the three most dominant illocutionary utterances have strong contextual roots and cannot be separated from the lingual reality of the speech.

Viewed from the perspective of speech content, the results of the study strengthen the findings(Andén-Papadopoulos, 2020b, 2020a). The speech functions of inviting, demanding, anger, criticizing, promising, and threatening are lingual characteristics of online activism voiced by protesters through Youtube. In line with the findings(Khamis et al., 2012; Klausen et al., 2012), the function of the speech above is the key and the basis for provoking greater action and movement. In line with the findings of (Perrino, 2017), the separation and affirmation of identity between the protester and the object of the protest is the hallmark of the illocutionary utterances above. In this context, the speaker builds the identity of "us" as supporters of Palestine to oppose

"you" and "them" who are the parties supporting the occupation. This situation has resulted in a growing polarization. In line with the research findings of (Breuer et al., 2015; Karolak, 2017), the reality of language on the internet has the potential to become a tool that endangers political stability in a country that is consolidating democracy. Nevertheless, the utterances that appear in the data source are natural expressions of language users that cannot be blocked and restricted.

In addition to the relevance and similarities above, the findings also have a distinction from some previous research results. The findings provide a broader perspective on the research of (Hassan, 2019) which focuses on language impoliteness, and(Perrino, 2017) which focuses on racism. From the perspective of illocutionary speech, Youtube user responses appear in more varied forms. The findings in the form of the functions of stating, pleading, inviting, and sympathizing reflect the choice of language that is very polite to the interlocutor. From the

(16)

dimension of the target to build the movement, the patterns, and targets of speech found to lead to resistance to the occupation of Israel, the United States, and their allied countries. This reality is different from the results of studies of (Way, 2015; Wolfsfeld et al., 2013; Zahed, 2011), where aggressive and provocative language is used to build a movement against the ruling government. Thus, the findings from the perspective of illocutionary speech provide new insights into the landscape of Arabic linguistic research on Youtube and the scope of the Middle East conflict.

From the perspective of implications for social reality, the research findings have the potential to trigger a massive resistance movement against Israeli aggression in Palestine.

Reflecting on the results of studies of (Armstrong, 2015; Breuer et al., 2015; Ghannam, 2011;

Smidi & Shahin, 2017), actions on social media have always been the beginning of community resistance in several conflicts in several Middle Eastern countries. Through utterances that are spread sporadically on social media, people build non-hierarchical solidarity. This fact then forms a movement space on social media called cyberactivism.As the result, this solidarity will seek the central location of movement in the real world. An example of the flow of movement from “spread to unity” through social media can be seen in the chronology of the Arab Spring (De Choudhury et al., 2016; Kidd & McIntosh, 2016; Miladi, 2016; Radcliffe & Lam, 2018).

With these historical facts, the reality of illocutionary speech as the researchers have explained can be predicted that it will also trigger the development of a massive resistance movement of the Palestinian people against Israeli occupation in the future.

4. CONCLUSION

Based on the data analysis and discussion above, it can be concluded that the illocutionary speech acts on Al-Jazeera Youtube comments are influenced by the context of the speaker's view of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. As the two dominant types, directive and commissive speech acts describe the speaker's response that demands and asks the Israeli army to stop the attack. In addition, the speakers also pray to God to give strength and patience to the Palestinian people. The speaker also invited the world community to contribute to help the Palestinian people. Commissive speeches such as promises and threats were spoken to inflame the fighting spirit of the Palestinian people in the face of Israeli military aggression. As a speech that describes an action, the illocutionary speech act has symptoms similar to the cyberactivism movement in various Middle Eastern conflict countries. The comments given through various social media platforms became the root of the formation of the resistance movement.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Alhamdulillah for the conveniences and blessings for all the favors and gifts, so that this paper can be completed. Thank you also to all parties who have been involved and helped such as reviewers, editors, and journal managers so that this article can be prepared properly.

6. REFERENCES

Abozinadah, E. A., Mbaziira, A. V., & Jones, J. H. J. (2015). Detection of Abusive Accounts

(17)

with Arabic Tweets. International Journal of Knowledge Engineering-IACSIT, 1(2), 113–

119. https://doi.org/10.7763/ijke.2015.v1.19

Al-Jazeera. (2021a, May 7).حارج خيشلا يت عم اونماضت ءاطشنل تاباسحلا تارشع قلغي رايوت رابخأ نيطسلف| | تن ةريزجلا. https://www.aljazeera.net/news/2021/5/7/نييملعإو-ءاطشن-تاحفص-قلغي-رايوت

Al-Jazeera. (2021b, May 8). عم لولت يأ ليجأت نمث وهاينان عفدي له ..حارج خيشلاو ىصقلاب تاهجاوملا

؟نيينيطسلفلا رابخأ نيطسلف|تن ةريزجلا|. https://www.aljazeera.net/news/alquds/2021/5/8/-ةلات-طسو تايعادت-ام-يسايسلا-كابرلا

Al-Jazeera. (2021c, May 10). ىصقلا دجسملل يليئارسلا للاتحا تاوق ماحاقح ةرشابم روص - YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=axwb9ywDRGs

Al-Jazeera. (2021d, May 10). هتاتاسو ىصقلا دجسملا لخاد نم نيفعسملاو ةيبطلا مقاوطلا درط - YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=sqvlHAuFoWs

Al-Rawi, A. K. (2014). The Arab spring and online protests in Iraq. International Journal of Communication,8(1), 916–942.

Al-Tamimi, A. K., Shatnawi, A., & Bani-Issa, E. (2017). Arabic sentiment analysis of YouTube comments. 2017 IEEE Jordan Conference on Applied Electrical Engineering and

Computing Technologies, AEECT 2017, 2018-Janua, 1–6.

https://doi.org/10.1109/AEECT.2017.8257766

Alberdi, O., & Are, P. W. (2009).City Research Online.14, 18–31.

Alsafari, S., Sadaoui, S., & Mouhoub, M. (2020). Hate and offensive speech detection on Arabic social media. Online Social Networks and Media, 19(September), 100096.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.osnem.2020.100096

ANDÉN-PAPADOPOULOS, K. (2020a). Producing Image Activism After the Arab Uprisings:

Introduction.International Journal of Communication,14, 5010–5020.

ANDÉN-PAPADOPOULOS, K. (2020b). The “Image-as-Forensic-Evidence” Economy in the Post-2011 Syrian Conflict: The Power and Constraints of Contemporary Practices of Video Activism.International Journal of Communication,14, 5072–5091.

Armstrong, M. A. & C. (2015). " Facebook to Mobilize , Twitter to Coordinate Protests , and YouTube to Tell the World ": New Media , Cyberactivism , and the Arab Spring.Journal of Global Initiatives,10(1), 73–102.

Arthurs, J., Drakopoulou, S., & Gandini, A. (2018). Researching YouTube. Convergence,24(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856517737222

Asghar, M. Z., Ahmad, S., Marwat, A., & Kundi, F. M. (2015).Sentiment Analysis on YouTube:

A Brief Survey. 1–11. http://arxiv.org/abs/1511.09142 Austin, J. L. (1962).How do to Things with Words(p. 167).

Blackburn, S., & Searle, J. (1999). Mind, Language, and Society: Philosophy in the Real World.

In The Journal of Philosophy (Vol. 96, Issue 12). Basic Books.

https://doi.org/10.2307/2564696

Breuer, A., Landman, T., & Farquhar, D. (2015). Social media and protest mobilization:

evidence from the Tunisian revolution. Democratization, 22(4), 764–792.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2014.885505

Bruns, A., Highfield, T., & Burgess, J. (2013). The Arab Spring and Social Media Audiences:

(18)

English and Arabic Twitter Users and Their Networks. American Behavioral Scientist, 57(7), 871–898. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764213479374

De Choudhury, M., Jhaver, S., Sugar, B., & Weber, I. (2016). Social media participation in an activist movement for racial equality. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Web and Social Media, ICWSM 2016,Icwsm, 92–101.

Ghannam, J. (2011). Social Media in the Arab World- Leading up to the Uprisings of 2011- A Report to the Center for International Media Assistance.pdf.Center for International Media Assistance and National Endorsement for Democracy. http://www.cima.ned.org/wp- content/uploads/2011/02/Ghannam-Jeffrey-Arab_Social_Media-Report-10-25-11.pdf

Gunn, S., & Faire, L. (2011). Research methods for history.Research Methods for History.

Hadi, S. (2001).Metodologi research. Andi Offset.

Hassan, B. E. A. (2019). Impolite viewer responses in Arabic political TV talk shows on YouTube.Pragmatics,29(4), 521–544. https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.18025.has

Hymes, D. (2009). Models of the Interaction of Language and Social Life. In The New Sociolinguistics Reader. Holt, Rhinehart, and Winstone. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349- 92299-4_39

Karolak, M. (2017). The use of social media from revolution to democratic consolidation: The Arab spring and the case of Tunisia. Journal of Arab and Muslim Media Research,10(2), 199–216. https://doi.org/10.1386/jammr.10.2.199_1

Kern, M. L., Park, G., Eichstaedt, J. C., Schwartz, H. A., Sap, M., Smith, L. K., & Ungar, L. H.

(2016). Gaining insights from social media language. Psychological Methods,21(4), 507–

Khamis, S., Gold, P., & Vaughn, K. (2012). Beyond Egypt’s “Facebook Revolution” and Syria’s525.

“YouTube Uprising:” Comparing Political Contexts, Actors and Communication Strategies.

Arab Media & Society,15, 1–30.

Kidd, D., & McIntosh, K. (2016). Social Media and Social Movements. Sociology Compass, 10(9), 785–794. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12399

Klausen, J., Barbieri, E. T., Reichlin-melnick, A., & Zelin, A. Y. (2012). The YouTube Jihadists:

A social network analysis of Al- Muhajiroun’s propaganda campaign. Perspectives on

Terrorism, 6(1), 36–53.

http://www.terrorismanalysts.com/pt/index.php/pot/article/view/klausen-et-al-youtube- jihadists/html

Koller, A., & Searle, J. R. (1970). Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. In Language(Vol. 46, Issue 1). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/412428 Loar, B., & Searle, J. R. (1982). Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts.

In The Philosophical Review (Vol. 91, Issue 3). Cambridge University Press.

https://doi.org/10.2307/2184707

Lune, H., & Berg, B. L. (2017).Methods for the Social Sciences Global Edition.

Mahsun. (2005).Metode penelitian bahasa. Rajagrafindo Persada.

Markham, T. (2014). Social media, protest cultures and political subjectivities of the Arab spring.

Media, Culture and Society,36(1), 89–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443713511893

(19)

Miladi, N. (2016). Social media and social change.Digest of Middle East Studies,25(1), 36–51.

https://doi.org/10.1111/dome.12082

Moleong, L. J. (2005).Metode penelitian kualitatif. Remaja Rosdakarya.

Mor, Y., Ron, Y., & Maoz, I. (2016). “Likes” for peace: Can facebook promote dialogue in the israeli–palestinian conflict? Media and Communication, 4(1), 15–26.

https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v4i1.298

Mubarak, H., Darwish, K., & Magdy, W. (2017). Abusive Language Detection on Arabic Social Media. 52–56. https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/w17-3008

Mubarak, H., Rashed, A., Darwish, K., Samih, Y., & Abdelali, A. (2020). Arabic Offensive Language on Twitter: Analysis and Experiments. http://arxiv.org/abs/2004.02192

Neuman, W. L. (2007). Basics of social research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches 2ed;

Pearson Education, Inc. InSociety. Allyn and Bacon.

Perrino, S. (2017). Recontextualizing racialized stories on YouTube. Narrative Inquiry, 27(2), 261–285. https://doi.org/10.1075/ni.27.2.04per

Radcliffe, D., & Lam, A. (2018). Social Media in the Middle East: The Story of 2017. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3124077

Rahardjo, M. (2002). Pengantar Penelitian Bahasa. InPemaparan Metodenpenelitian Kuantitatif.

Caraswatibooks.

Regan, B. (2020). Rashid Khalidi, The Hundred Years’ War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917–2017 . In Journal of Holy Land and Palestine Studies (Vol. 19, Issue 2). Metropolitan Books. https://doi.org/10.3366/hlps.2020.0245

Reyaee, S., & Ahmed, A. (2015). Growth Pattern of Social Media Usage in Arab Gulf States: An Analytical Study.Social Networking,04(02), 23–32. https://doi.org/10.4236/sn.2015.42003 Scheindlin, D., & Waxman, D. (2016). Confederalism: A Third Way for Israel–Palestine.

Washington Quarterly,39(1), 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163660X.2016.1170482 Searle, J. R. (1976).A classification of illoutionary act by john r searle.pdf.

Shafir, G. (2017). A Half Century of Occupation: Israel, Palestine, and The World’s Most Inttractable Conflict. University of California Press.

Smidi, A., & Shahin, S. (2017). Social Media and Social Mobilisation in the Middle East: A Survey of Research on the Arab Spring. India Quarterly, 73(2), 196–209.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0974928417700798

Snelson, C., Rice, K., & Wyzard, C. (2012). Research priorities for YouTube and video-sharing technologies: A Delphi study. British Journal of Educational Technology,43(1), 119–129.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01168.x

Sudaryanto. (2001). Metodologi dan Aneka Teknik Analisis Bahasa. Sanata Dharma University Press.

Törnberg, A., & Törnberg, P. (2016). Muslims in social media discourse: Combining topic modeling and critical discourse analysis. Discourse, Context and Media, 13, 132–142.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcm.2016.04.003

Way, L. C. S. (2015). YouTube as a site of debate through populist politics: the case of a Turkish protest pop video. Journal of Multicultural Discourses, 10(2), 180–196.

(20)

https://doi.org/10.1080/17447143.2015.1041965

Wolfsfeld, G., Segev, E., & Sheafer, T. (2013). Social Media and the Arab Spring: Politics Comes First. International Journal of Press/Politics, 18(2), 115–137.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161212471716

Zahed, S. E. L. (2011). I ’ ll Be Waiting for You Guys ”: A YouTube Call to Action in the Egyptian Revolution MELISSSA WALL California State University , Northridge.

International Journal of Communication, 5, 1333–1343.

http://ijoc.org/ojs/index.php/ijoc/article/view/1241/609.