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PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many thanks to Lizette Royer at the Archives of the History of American Psychology (AHAP) for her. We hope that teachers and students will experience some of the fun we had writing the book.
INTRODUCTION
American and Western European psychology has often been portrayed as a universal form of psychology and is usually the focus of the story, we try to show how this psychology is as socially embedded as any other. We also try to complicate the idea of who is in the center and who is on the periphery of the history of psychology by including actors and events that have been marginalized until now due to identity, geography, orientation or some other reasons. in historical accounts.
WHY HISTORY? WHY HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY?
As far as we are able to do so, we attempt to ground our presentation of the history of psychology in a social constructionist position. He has written historical accounts of the origins and development of psychological research practices in Germany, France, and the United States.
OTHER ASPECTS OF OUR STORY
They often told the story of psychology through the lens of the present, considering only the scientific advances that incrementally led to the supposedly superior state of contemporary knowledge as important and leaving out the stories of those who did not fit. They often invoked origin myths in the process, retrospectively selecting great thinkers and classic experiments to support the legitimacy of current views and to provide a sense of continuity and tradition about the development of psychology.
ORGANIZATIONAL OVERVIEW
BIBLIOGRAPHIC ESSAY
A HISTORY OF
MODERN PSYCHOLOGY IN CONTEXT
TIMELINE 1220–1920Chapter 1
ORIGINS OF A SCIENCE OF MIND
If, as we suggested in the introduction to this book, Psychology emerged from ways of living, then it follows that we must ask questions about when and how changes in everyday life occurred. While we have an extensive history of philosophical thought from the early modern era to which we refer in this chapter, in the next chapter we use what is available in the historical record to suggest how non-elites contributed to the emergence of practices which are also part of the background that led to the emergence of Psychology.
PHILOSOPHY: DESCARTES AND LOCKE AS EXEMPLARS
Locke was engaged with the politics of his time and was drawn into the political intrigues of the time. Knowledge, then, is a matter of the mind gathering experiences, or ideas, from the material world.
PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE
This led to philosophers' later emphasis on what was later called epistemology, the study of how we know. The result was that man was increasingly understood as part of nature and had to be understood in terms of the natural world.
THE SEARCH FOR MATERIAL EXPLANATIONS OF
But the practical result was a privileging of the empirical world, strengthening the case for natural religion and for a society based on human experience. The time from the publication of Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1690 to the early 19th century is often referred to as the "long" 18th century.
HUMAN NATURE
Focus on Christine Ladd-Franklin
However, she quickly became disgusted with teaching and continued to study mathematics and occasionally published articles in the Educational Times. In Chapter 3, we show how the work of M¨uller and Helmholtz in the physiological tradition was directly related to the emergence of Wundt's physiological psychology.
DARWIN, NATURAL SELECTION, AND THE LAWS OF NATURE
No event or observation on the Beagle's voyage swayed Darwin toward his final theory. This principle of the continuity of life was one of the most controversial aspects of Darwin's work, one that he did not emphasize in On the Origin of Species (1859).
SUMMARY
A key text that has both inspired us and guided our thinking about the history of psychology in context, not just for this chapter but for our entire writing of this text, is Roger Smith's Norton History of the Human Sciences (1997). John van Wyhe's 2002 article on Gall helped us locate Gall's work in the context of medical debates about the functions of the brain.
TIMELINE 1390–1860Chapter 2
EVERYDAY LIFE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES
NEW TECHNOLOGIES
In the first half of the 18th century, the novel appeared as a new form of literary art in England. The thoughts and emotions of the characters were placed in the foreground in such a way that readers could identify with them; that.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF COMMERCIAL SOCIETY
We can see this not only in the novel, but also in the dramatic rise in popularity of magazines and newspapers. In a capitalist mode, individuals in the market must consider the consequences of their actions.
CHANGES IN FAMILY LIFE
Consequently, the family was seen as a loving, caring social unit, separate from the rest of the world. But they were well on their way at the time of the great transformation of work and family life known as the First Industrial Revolution.
READING THE SIGNS OF THE BODY IN THE ERA OF INDUSTRIAL
Indeed, family historians have often noted that court records from earlier periods are filled with charges brought against neighbors for various grievances—ranging from adultery, spousal abuse, to failure to provide food for strangers— all raised based on what the neighbor observed or heard from one of the residents of the house. The family consisted of individuals who chose to be together and who based their community on mutual love.
CAPITALISM
Focus on the Fowler Brothers
Despite phrenology's enormous popular appeal and the Fowler family's efforts to establish its professional legitimacy, it received consistent criticism regarding its scientific validity. From the early modern period in the Western world and on to our own time, there was a remarkable growth in the meaning of the self as autonomous and private.
TIMELINE 1700–1920Chapter 3
SUBJECT MATTER, METHODS, AND THE MAKING OF A NEW SCIENCE
The gradual de-emphasis of experimental introspection in American psychology in favor of comparative and observational approaches was related to several factors that are explored in the third part of the chapter. This shift was accompanied by a marked change in the subject of psychology away from consciousness and towards observed behavior.
CAN PSYCHOLOGY BE A SCIENCE?
KANT’S CHALLENGE
His ideas suggested that the mind's role in structuring our experience might be an important topic to investigate in itself. This is not, Kant argued, because the world is fundamentally organized that way, but because the mind is set up to structure its experience of the world that way.
PSYCHOPHYSICS AND THE POSSIBILITY OF A NEW SCIENCE
Moreover, these theoretical debates have rarely appeared in historical accounts of the importance of psychophysics and quantification in the creation of the new Psychology. With the rise of psychophysics, combined with other developments recounted in Chapter 1, it was a short step toward the creation of the first psychological laboratory and the formalization of the new science.
THE GERMAN INTELLECTUAL TRADITION
The question remains, however, why so many of these scholars contributed to the rise of the new Psychology. The new science of Psychology that arose in Germany at the end of the 19th century can therefore be seen as a product of this unique milieu or, in part, socially constructed.
WILHELM WUNDT AND THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY
In the late 19th century, the German university system was characterized by a highly respected philosophical tradition and emphasized independent research. As the historian of psychology DeborahCoon has noted (1993), Wundt intended experimental introspection to be analogous to observation in the natural sciences.
PSYCHOLOGY IN BRITAIN AND FRANCE
Despite the appearance of linear progress towards the crowning of a fully scientific study of the mind, supported by all the appropriate features of professionalisation, the story of Psychology's origin was far from so simple. He therefore formulated the pathological method, a method that would influence the course of the new Psychology in France.
THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY IN AMERICA
But before retiring from psychology, James formulated a position on the purpose of the new science that became quite influential. According to James, the goal of a scientific psychology was to reveal the functions of the mind, not its contents or structure.
THE DEMISE OF INTROSPECTION IN AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY
Focus on Mary Whiton Calkins
Calkins' dissertation research was an experimental study of idea association in which she pioneered the technique of studying paired memory. In her autobiography, published in 1930, the year of her death, she attributed her conception of herself as social to the influence of Royce and James.
BEHAVIORISM AND AMERICAN LIFE
A good overview of this period of development is Michael Sokal's ''The Origins of the New Psychology in the United States'' (2006). In the section on the abandonment of introspection and the turn to behaviorism, we relied heavily on Thomas Leahey's organization and discussion of the rise of behaviorism in his text A History of Psychology (1997).
TIMELINE 1560–1920Chapter 4
Taylor's Principles of Scientific Management (1911) Scott's Increasing Human Efficiency in Business (1910) Münsterbergs Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (1913). Michelson modtager Nobelprisen i fysik (1907) Terman opnår sin ph.d. med Hall at Clark (1905) Scott's Psychology of Advertising (1908).
FROM PERIPHERY TO CENTER
CREATING AN AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY
In the first half of the chapter we explore how a unique psychological sensitivity emerged in nineteenth-century American life. We discuss how the growth of this new psychology was rooted in the pragmatic approach later called functionalism.
AMERICAN MENTAL AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY
Quimby represents a bridge to new metaphysical movements that arose in the second half of the 19th century. In the charged atmosphere of the time, many embraced his psychology of health and illness.
BOUNDARY WORK AND THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY: ESTABLISHING
Several of the new psychologists have made public statements condemning spiritualism and disavowing psychic research. The new psychologists exemplified the Protestant work ethic and promoted the character-building qualities of their efforts.
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGISTS
Writing in the popular press, psychologists such as Hall and Edward Wheeler Scripture emphasized that training in the new Psychology would inculcate the moral virtues of perseverance and diligence. Hall suggested that the marvels exposed by the new science, such as the workings of the brain, would simply highlight the exquisite work of an omniscient Creator.
ORGANIZATION AND APPLICATION
Focus on Lillian Moller Gilbreth
In the second half of the chapter, we saw how American society turned to science for pragmatic solutions. This, we argued, was critical to the full indigenization and naturalization of psychology in the United States.
TIMELINE 1700–1950Chapter 5
Kent's work on association at Kings Park State Hospital results in the Kent-Rosanoff Word Association Test.
THE PRACTICE OF PSYCHOLOGY AT THE INTERFACE WITH MEDICINE
ENLIGHTENMENT AND MADNESS
Tuke and the Quakers used the model of the godly home as a framework for their treatment. By the 1830s, moral treatment was the standard treatment approach in most of the asylums that had begun to be built in the countryside near many American cities.
FROM MESMERISM TO HYPNOSIS
His success in Paris aroused the envy and anger of the medical establishment, which accused him of being a charlatan. In France, the doctor Ambroise-Auguste Li´ebeault became convinced of the value of hypnosis and began to offer it as part of treatment free of charge (since his patients were skeptical).
CHARCOT: THE NAPOLEON OF THE NEUROSES
He spent a lot of time and energy describing the symptoms of the disease and classifying the characteristics and stages of convulsive hysterical attacks. With hypnosis, the hypnotist's suggestions created the same "effacement of the ego" that traumatic experience did.
SIGMUND FREUD (1856–1939)
Focus on Bertha Pappenheim
Freud considered this to be one of the most significant events of his life and one that led him to undertake an intense self-analysis. Major newspapers of the day covered the visit and wrote favorably about Freud's lectures.
FREUD’S IMPACT ON PSYCHOLOGY AS A MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSION
Freud and psychoanalysis, introduced to America by James in the mid-1890s, also began to be influential in the first two decades of the 20th century. He became one of the most important figures in the development of what is now called clinical psychology.
BOUNDARIES BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGY AND MEDICINE
The two main leaders in the growth of the new field were Helen Flanders Dunbar and Franz Alexander. Dunbar was a central figure in the promotion and establishment of psychosomatic medicine in America.
PSYCHOANALYSIS OUTSIDE EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA
It served as the basis for the later development of the specialty of health psychology. Eric Caplan's Mind Games (1998) expertly describes the development of the Emmanuel Movement and American responses to psychotherapy.
TIMELINE 1820–1920Chapter 6
Armistice ends World War I (1918) Dutch version of the Binet-Simon test (1919) Commission for the psychological examination of recruits designs army testing programs (1917) Terman's The Measurement of Intelligence (1916).
PSYCHOLOGISTS AS TESTERS
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY, ORDERING SOCIETY
As the historian of psychology Gail Hornstein has written, “After psychophysics, the most important work in the development of a quantitative perspective in psychology has been mental testing” (1988, p. 8). Significantly, historian Donald Napoli titled his book on the history of applied psychology in the United States Architects of Adjustment (1981) to emphasize this orientation.
THE ROOTS OF MENTAL TESTING IN AMERICA
Later in the chapter we present some comparative, cross-national perspectives to help unpack the ways in which tests were developed and used in contexts with different social agendas and different institutional and political structures. The value system that permeated American society and psychology in the early 20th century and contributed to the popularity of testing in this context continues to exert its influence in the 21st century.
MENTAL TESTS GO TO THE FAIR
They had more lighting than any city in the United States at the time and were designed to promote the new urban, industrial world order best reflected in the cities of America's "new world." An examination of the content of the psychology exhibition and the psychologists' goals for their public presentation provides a glimpse into what the psychologists of the time considered important for the public to know about their science.
LIGHTNER WITMER AND THE PREHISTORY OF CLINICAL
For Witmer, the work of the clinical psychologist was largely the assessment of children and the remediation of their academic and behavioral problems. In the late 19th century, a large influx of immigration and increased urbanization led to a perceived crisis in public education.
SORTING THE SEXES
Focus on Leta Stetter Hollingworth
Leta Stetter Hollingworth was a woman from the Nebraska prairie who made her professional mark in the far reaches of New York City. While the involvement of women psychologists in the applied efforts of the war was virtually nonexistent, this changed as the field continued to professionalize in the postwar years.
THE DEMISE OF MENTAL TESTS AND THE RISE OF THE IQ
Goddard believed that people in the highest degree of retardation (i.e. idiots) posed a special threat because they were not immediately recognizable by their facial features. The scope of the test had to be expanded and the standards recalculated on an American sample.
LEWIS TERMAN AND THE AMERICANIZATION OF
In the case of the 'bad' line of the Kallikak family, the bad genes from the unfortunate pairing produced a whole host of degenerates. More than 10 percent of annual expenditures on school education in the United States are spent on reteaching children what they have already learned but have not learned.
ARMY INTELLIGENCE: WORLD WAR I PUTS PSYCHOLOGY ON THE MAP
By the end of the war, approximately 1.75 million men had undergone one of the two tests. In addition to intelligence and vocational tests, World War I also led to the development of the first paper-and-pencil objective personality tests in the United States.
WORLD WAR I AND ITS IMPACT ON AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY
Sorting students by IQ was seen as improving the efficiency of the education system by breaking up the masses into smaller, more uniform units that could all be taught the same way within their stream. As the historian Paula Fass has noted of the importance of the intelligence test in the American context,.
INTELLIGENCE TESTING AROUND THE WORLD
As we have already discussed, in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor began to promote a school of thought on how to run industry more efficiently. In the workplace, psychologists were demonstrating that occupational testing allowed employers to have employees "functionally analyzed" and assigned to jobs for which they were best suited, which in turn would increase productivity.
CENTER OR PERIPHERY?
Finally, the development of intelligence testing also reflected differences in the way psychology, more generally, developed in each of the two countries. Another inhibitor of the mass use of intelligence tests to address eugenic concerns was the structure of Dutch society itself.
WHAT DID THE TESTS TEST?
For our coverage of the rise of intelligence testing in the American context, along with the aforementioned books, we drew on several journal articles among a large literature. For our brief discussion of intelligence testing and eugenics in the Netherlands, we consulted Ernst Mulder and Frieda Heyting's article "The Dutch Curve."
TIMELINE 1830–1940Chapter 7
Bridgman's The Logic of Modern Physics (1927) Harvard Psychological Clinic is founded (1927) Ernst Mach Society is founded (1928) Gordon Allport publishes his Test of. Goodwin Watson is elected first president of the Association for the Psychological Study of Social Questions (1936) Spanish Civil War (1936–1939).
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE BETWEEN
THE WORLD WARS
WHO OWNS PSYCHOLOGY?
Thus, in the 1920s, a rapid expansion of both disciplinary psychology and popular psychology was promoted by non-professionals. Although this chapter focuses primarily on the expansion of disciplinary psychology, we must remember that this took place in the context of an audience receptive to his expertise but unwilling to give up their own everyday psychology.
ORGANIZATION AND COOPERATION
The only real advantage was that they could say they were employees of the APA. However, the APA's leaders, who were already well established and had not been as badly affected by the Depression, refused to become involved in the employment crisis.
THE KINGDOM OF BEHAVIOR
Many scientists feared that organization would lead to control by outside bodies, but Hale and other leaders of the movement were able to persuade enough scientists and university leaders to become involved in cooperative research. Research grants and collaborative projects were two of the methods used to facilitate the mutual goals of the researchers and the foundations.
MAINSTREAM PSYCHOLOGY, 1920–1940
So in the psychology of time, a scientist can operationally determine hunger by giving the exact weight of the mouse and. For these mice, the number of errors matched that of the control group for the first 10 days.
DEVELOPING DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Focus on Mary Cover Jones
Although he was not initially afraid of any of the objects, including the mouse, the loud noise startled Albert. With enough pairings, he began to show a fear response in the presence of objects even when the loud noise was absent.
RACE, ETHNICITY, INTELLIGENCE, AND RESISTANCE
The issue of intelligence and intelligence testing was one focus of the research conducted by various African American psychologists in the interwar period. In 1934 the magazine devoted a special issue to ''The Physical and Mental Abilities of the American Negro.''
SEXUALITY RESEARCH
According to Guthrie (1998), Canady made West Virginia State the most productive psychology department at a historically Black college or university of its time. It was Canady who first questioned the role that racial differences between the examinee and the examinee might play in obtaining accurate results on intelligence tests.
PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY
In doing so, he created numerous professional opportunities for women and, as noted, collaborated with Morgan in the development of the TAT. Mayo believed that the benefit of interviewing lay in reducing worker dissatisfaction through workers' verbalization of dissatisfaction.
THE DISCIPLINARY EMERGENCE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN AMERICA
Psychologists became the leaders of this new profession, often serving as counselors' supervisors in the workplace. They became known as the Topology Group and included, at various times, some of the best-known psychologists in the history of the discipline.
