Volume 11, Number 1 (October 2023):4985-4997, doi:10.15243/jdmlm.2023.111.4985 ISSN: 2339-076X (p); 2502-2458 (e), www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id
Open Access 4985 Review
Balancing environmental conservation and socioeconomic needs:
the complexities of artisanal and small-scale coal mining in Africa
Aleksandr K Kirsanov*, Evgeny S Mayorov, Pavel V Katyshev, Victor E Kislyakov
Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russian Federation
*corresponding author: AKirsanov@sfu-kras.ru
Abstract Article history:
Received 15 February 2023 Revised 31 May 2023 Accepted 16 June 2023
Artisanal and small-scale coal mining (ASM) in Africa presents a complex challenge where environmental conservation and socioeconomic development must be carefully balanced. This article explores the intricate dynamics surrounding ASM in the African context, highlighting the multifaceted impacts on the environment and the socioeconomic well-being of local communities. Artisanal and small-scale coal mining is often characterized by low capital investment, limited mechanization, and dependence on manual labor. Despite this, miners face numerous problems due to the unstable socioeconomic situation and weak labor legislation. The article describes the practice of ASM in Africa: provides an overview of the growing significance of ASM in Africa, and sets the stage for understanding the intricate trade-offs faced in managing this sector. The development of ASM in Africa is examined, considering its historical context, drivers, and patterns of growth, emphasizing the need for context-specific approaches to address its complexities. The article delves into the environmental challenges posed by ASM, focusing on deforestation, land degradation, water and air pollution, and the loss of biodiversity. It examines the specific manifestations of these challenges in selected African countries, shedding light on the varied ecological consequences and their ramifications for sustainable development. Additionally, the socioeconomic dimensions of ASM are explored, acknowledging its potential as a livelihood source for many communities while also recognizing the social and economic vulnerabilities associated with it. The article discusses the interplay between ASM and local economies, including job creation, income generation, and the broader implications for poverty alleviation and sustainable development.
Keywords:
Africa coal mining
environmental impact mining regulations sustainable mining
To cite this article: Kirsanov, A.K., Mayorov, E.S., Katyshev, P.V. and Kislyakov, V.E. 2023. Balancing environmental conservation and socioeconomic needs: the complexities of artisanal and small-scale coal mining in Africa. Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 11(1):4985-4997, doi:10.15243/jdmlm.2023.111.4985.
Introduction
Coal is one of the world's major energy sources, and a comprehensive understanding of the industry is crucial for policymakers, investors, and scientists interested in the energy sector in any given region or country. In recent years, the growth rate of coal mining in general was about 4.5% (Table 1). The recognized world leaders among geographic regions in descending order
for 2021 were: Asia, North America, Europe, CIS, Africa, South and Central America, Oceania, and the Middle East. In almost all countries, conventional coal mining is open-pit or underground mining, which involves the use of high-performance equipment and industrial-scale extraction of coal. This is usually done by legal entities that pay taxes to the state and compensate for damages in case of a negative impact on the environment. However, in the context of global
Open Access 4986 coal production, we should also distinguish a separate
type of coal mining: artisanal and small-scale mining, which flourishes in developing countries (e.g., many African countries) or in developed countries but with a rather low level of development in certain provinces (China, India). The definition of the term artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is given in quite a lot of
literature (Noetstaller, 1987; Barry, 1996;
International Labour Office Report, 1999; Jennings, 1999; Peiter et al., 2000; Hentschel et al., 2002). In our work, we will use the following value – mining of minerals by individuals, cooperatives, or small companies with minimal capital investment and with large use of manual labor.
Table 1. World production of coal, in mmt (Reichl and Schatz, 2023).
Commodity Years of observations Change 17/21
in %
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Steam Coal 5532 5832 5958 5724 5967 7.87
Coking Coal 1023 1033 1056 1036 1056 3.27
Lignite 821 800 734 637 687 -16.29
Coal (Total) 7375 7666 7749 7397 7711 4.55
Artisanal coal mining is a form of traditional small–
scale mining, which is carried out in such African countries as Nigeria, Ghana, Tanzania, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, etc., without any regulatory oversight. This type of mining is usually carried out by local communities that use elementary tools and methods to extract coal from the bowels of the earth (Hentschel et al., 2002; Hilson, 2003; Hilson et al., 2019;
Vasil'chenko, 2020; Nevzorova, 2022).
It is an important source of income for many people in rural areas and is often the only source of fuel for cooking and room heating. However, artisanal coal mining has a number of negative consequences. This type of mining is often not regulated in any way, which leads to environmental degradation and a risk to the health of the workers themselves (Hilson, 2002; Rwiza et al. 2023). In addition, the coal extracted in this way is of lower quality, and it is difficult to use it for industrial purposes. Despite these risks, artisanal coal mining remains a vital source of income for many people in rural Africa. In this article, we will look at the history and practice of artisanal mining in Africa and the mining methods used by local residents, as well as discuss the regulation of artisanal coal mining.
This article aims to shed light on the negative environmental effects associated with artisanal coal mining, with a focus on African countries. It explores the ecological ramifications of this form of mining, drawing attention to deforestation, land degradation, air pollution, water contamination, and other related issues. By understanding and addressing these impacts, it becomes possible to advocate for sustainable mining practices that minimize harm to the environment and promote the well-being of local communities. In addressing the issue of balancing environmental conservation and socioeconomic needs, this article recognizes the inherent complexities that arise from artisanal and small-scale coal mining (ASM) in Africa. The interplay between environmental conservation and socioeconomic needs requires careful consideration and a holistic approach.
It demands finding sustainable solutions that not only
support the livelihoods of individuals involved in ASM but also prioritize the long-term preservation of ecosystems and the well-being of communities. To achieve this delicate balance, the article delves into the challenges and complexities that arise in managing and regulating ASM activities. It discusses the need for robust legal and regulatory frameworks that promote responsible mining practices, enforce environmental safeguards, and ensure the health and safety of workers and nearby communities. By establishing transparent and accountable systems, it becomes possible to mitigate the negative environmental impacts associated with ASM while safeguarding the socioeconomic benefits it brings.
Development of Artisanal Mining in Africa Artisanal mining in general, and coal, in particular, is a long-standing tradition in Africa, which has changed and developed over time. The history of artisanal mining in the region dates back to ancient times when manual labor was used to collect stones and minerals for the manufacture of various tools and jewelry – evidence of this are artifacts such as pottery and sculptures found during archaeological excavations.
The use of primitive mining methods begins in more ancient times. Over the centuries, these early methods have been combined with increasingly modern ones, creating a hybrid of traditional and modern artisanal mining.
Currently, artisanal mining is a key source of income for many rural poor communities in Africa.
The majority of artisanal miners come from rural areas and low-income communities; therefore, they cannot receive appropriate education for further work at legal mining enterprises that can provide them with both personal protective equipment and various social guarantees (Ledwaba, 2017). The technologies used by African miners to extract coal vary greatly depending on the technical resources they have and the type of coal they produce. The methods used in artisanal coal mining vary from region to region but, as a rule, include the use of such basic tools as picks, sieves,
Open Access 4987 hoes, shovels, hammers, etc. (Schwartz et al., 2021). In
some cases, explosives may also be used to extract coal from the ground. Miners usually work in small teams.
The coal is harvested by hand and delivered to the local market. The technology of artisanal coal mining in the African region is a combination of a manual method of coal mining and modern industrial-type methods. In many parts of Africa, coal is mined manually: shallow
pits and long tunnels are dug (Figure 1). In some cases, equipment such as pumps, compressors, or conveyors are used to facilitate the extraction process. If we talk about underground coal mining in an artisanal way, then this technology is a reduced version of the chamber-pillar development system, but it does not use high-performance equipment but the same elementary tools as picks, shovels and hand carts (Figure 2).
а b
Figure 1. Artisanal coal mining on the Earth's surface.
а b
Figure 2. Underground coal mining by artisanal method.
Underground coal mining is much more dangerous since it is often accompanied by underground fires and explosions caused by poorly ventilated workings (Dreschler, 2001; Teschner, 2012; State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector, 2020). In such conditions, artisanal miners work at a depth of up to 30 meters and can extract up to 10 tons of coal per day, unlike hundreds or even thousands of tons that can be extracted by large mechanized mining enterprises.
Examples of the Use of ASM Technology in African Countries
Artisanal and small-scale coal mining is practiced in many regions of Africa. The reasons why people engage in artisanal coal mining are complex and vary
depending on the local context. In some cases, it may be the only source of livelihood for those living in poverty, as it provides an opportunity for income generation. In other cases, it may be a traditional practice that has been passed down through generations. In addition, artisanal coal mining is often carried out in areas where larger mining companies are not operating, either because the coal deposits are too small or because the terrain is difficult to access. This creates an opportunity for small-scale miners to extract coal and sell it to local markets or to larger companies.
Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe, artisanal coal mining is concentrated in the Hwange District in the country's northwest. Miners in this region extract coal from abandoned mines using
Open Access 4988 basic tools and techniques, often with little regard for
safety or environmental impact. In Zimbabwe, artisanal and small-scale mining is regulated by the Mines and Minerals Act, which establishes penalties for illegal mining activities. Engaging in artisanal coal mining without proper licenses or permits is considered illegal mining and can result in fines and imprisonment. According to the Mines and Minerals Act of Zimbabwe, the penalties for illegal mining activities can include fines of up to $5,000 or imprisonment for up to 10 years. The Act also specifies that equipment used for illegal mining can be confiscated. However, the Zimbabwean government has also implemented programs to support and formalize artisanal mining to encourage responsible mining practices and reduce the need for illegal mining. The Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Program aims to provide training, technical support, and access to capital and markets to artisanal miners, and encourage formalization of the sector. By supporting the formalization of artisanal mining, the government aims to improve the safety and environmental sustainability of mining operations, and reduce the need for illegal mining practices.
Mozambique
In Mozambique, artisanal coal mining is common in the Tete Province in the northwest part of the country (Macie et al. 2017; Caixao, 2021). Miners in this region extract coal from small, shallow pits using hand tools and sell it to local traders who transport the coal to larger markets. In Mozambique, artisanal and small- scale mining is regulated by the Mining Law, which establishes penalties for illegal mining activities.
According to the Mining Law of Mozambique, the penalties for illegal mining activities can include fines of up to 400,000 meticais (approximately $6,000) and imprisonment for up to 8 years. In Mozambique, the government has established the Artisanal and Small- Scale Mining Program (PRIME), which aims to promote the formalization of artisanal mining and improve the working conditions of miners. The program provides training, equipment, and technical assistance to miners and works to reduce the negative impacts of mining on the environment.
Zambia
Artisanal coal mining in Zambia is primarily focused in the country's southern province, particularly in the town of Maamba. Small-scale miners in this region extract the coal using basic tools and techniques and sell it to local traders or use it for household cooking and heating (Mtonga, 2002; Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Handbook for Zambia, 2018). In Zambia, artisanal and small-scale mining is regulated by the Mines and Minerals Development Act, which establishes penalties for illegal mining activities.
According to the Mines and Minerals Development Act of Zambia, the penalties for illegal mining activities can include fines of up to 75,000 Zambian
kwacha (approximately $3,400) and imprisonment for up to 5 years. In Zambia, the government has established the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Development Program (ASMDP), which aims to support the formalization of the artisanal mining sector and promote sustainable mining practices. The program provides training, equipment, and financial support to miners and works to reduce the negative impacts of mining on the environment.
Ghana
In Ghana, artisanal coal mining is concentrated in the country's Central and Western regions, where coal deposits are abundant. Miners in this region extract coal using rudimentary tools and techniques, often working in dangerous conditions without proper safety equipment (Wireko-Gyebi et al., 2020; Debrah et al., 2014; Bansah et al., 2016). In Ghana, artisanal and small-scale mining is regulated by the Minerals and Mining Act, which establishes penalties for illegal mining activities. According to the Minerals and Mining Act of Ghana, the penalties for illegal mining activities can include fines of up to 12,500 penalty units (equivalent to approximately $170,000) and imprisonment for up to 20 years. The Ghanaian government has established the Multilateral Mining Integration Project (MMIP), which aims to formalize the small-scale mining sector, including artisanal coal mining. The program provides training, equipment, and technical assistance to small-scale miners, and works to reduce the negative impacts of mining on the environment.
Nigeria
Artisanal coal mining in Nigeria is typically carried out in the southeastern part of the country, particularly in states such as Enugu and Ebonyi (Lar, 2020). The coal deposits in this region are part of the Anambra coal basin, which covers an area of about 1.5 million hectares. In Nigeria, artisanal and small-scale mining is regulated by the Nigerian Minerals and Mining Act, which establishes penalties for illegal mining activities. According to the Nigerian Minerals and Mining Act, the penalties for illegal mining activities can include fines of up to 10 million naira (approximately $26,000) and imprisonment for up to 5 years. The Nigerian government has established the Presidential Artisanal Gold Mining Development Initiative (PAGMI), which aims to formalize and integrate artisanal mining activities into the country's legal and economic systems. The program provides training, equipment, and financial support to artisanal miners and works to promote responsible mining practices.
South Africa
Artisanal coal mining is also present in South Africa, particularly in the country's Mpumalanga province (Simpson et al., 2019). In this region, small-scale miners extract coal from abandoned mines using hand
Open Access 4989 tools, often with little regard for safety or
environmental impact. In South Africa ASM is regulated by the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA). According to the MPRDA, the penalties for illegal mining activities can include fines of up to 10 million South African Rand (approximately $680,000) and imprisonment for up to 10 years. The South African government has established the Small-Scale Mining (SSM) Program, which provides financial assistance, training, and technical support to small-scale miners. The program also aims to improve safety and promote sustainable practices in the sector (Ledwaba, 2017).
Burkina Faso
Artisanal coal mining in Burkina Faso is typically carried out in the eastern and northern regions of the country, particularly in the provinces of Gnagna, Tapoa, and Yagha. The coal deposits in this region are part of the Gobnangou coal basin, which covers an area of about 800 square kilometers. In Burkina Faso, artisanal and small-scale mining is regulated by the Mining Code. According to the Mining Code, the penalties for illegal mining activities can include fines of up to 10 million CFA francs (approximately
$18,000) and imprisonment for up to 5 years. The government of Burkina Faso has established the Program for the Development of Artisanal and Small- Scale Mining (PADSEM), which aims to improve working conditions, increase productivity, and promote sustainable mining practices in the sector.
Mali
Artisanal coal mining in Mali is typically carried out in the western region of the country, particularly in the Kayes and Koulikoro regions. The coal deposits in this region are part of the Ségou coal basin, which covers an area of about 1500 square kilometers. In Mali, artisanal and small-scale mining is regulated by the Mining Code. According to the Mining Code, the penalties for illegal mining activities can include fines of up to 10 million CFA francs (approximately
$18,000) and imprisonment for up to 5 years. The code also specifies that equipment used for illegal mining can be confiscated. However, the enforcement of these penalties has been challenging in Mali, where the government has limited resources and capacity to monitor and regulate the mining sector, especially in remote areas. Illegal artisanal mining is widespread, and the government has taken some measures to formalize and regulate the sector to minimize the negative social and environmental impacts of mining.
To achieve this goal, the government has established the National Agency for Mining Development (ANAM), which provides technical and financial support to ASM miners and promotes the adoption of responsible and sustainable mining practices. The agency also encourages the formalization of ASM operations by granting mining permits and authorizing the use of mercury in the mining process. The Malian
government has established the Support Program for the Development of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (PADEMA), which provides training, equipment, and financial support to artisanal miners. The program also works to reduce the negative impacts of mining on the environment.
Tanzania
Artisanal coal mining in Tanzania is primarily carried out in the southwestern region of the country, particularly in the Rukwa and Mbeya regions. The coal deposits in this region are part of the Karoo Supergroup, which is believed to hold significant coal reserves. In Tanzania, ASM is regulated by the Mining Act of 2010, which requires individuals or groups to obtain licenses or permits to engage in mining activities. Engaging in artisanal coal mining without the required licenses or permits is considered illegal mining and can result in fines and imprisonment. The penalties for illegal mining activities in Tanzania can include fines of up to 50 million Tanzanian shillings (approximately $22,000) or imprisonment for up to 10 years, or both. The Tanzanian government has established the Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources Project (SMMRP), which aims to support the formalization of artisanal and small-scale mining activities. The program provides technical assistance, training, and equipment to miners and works to promote responsible mining practices and reduce the negative impacts of mining on the environment. It is worth noting that artisanal coal mining can take many different forms in different African countries, and the specific methods and practices used by miners can vary widely depending on factors such as local geology, culture, and economic conditions. However, the common thread among all forms of artisanal mining is the use of basic tools and techniques and the lack of formalization and regulation that can lead to environmental damage, health and safety risks, and other challenges. Coal mined in an artisanal way in Africa is typically sold to local markets or larger mining companies. Artisanal miners may sell their coal directly to local households, businesses, or power plants that use coal for energy production. The coal may be sold in small quantities, such as by the sack or truckload, or in larger quantities depending on the demand. In some cases, artisanal miners may also sell their coal to larger mining companies that operate in the same region. These companies may buy the coal to supplement their own production or to export to other markets. It is important to note that the sale of artisanal coal is often informal and unregulated, which can lead to exploitation and market instability.
Criminal Aspects of ASM in African Countries
Artisanal coal mining in African countries often involves criminal activities due to the lack of regulation and oversight in the sector. Some common
Open Access 4990 criminal aspects of artisanal coal mining include
(Hilson et al., 2019; Macháček, 2020; Schwartz et al., 2021; Landrigan et al., 2022):
1. Illegal mining: Many artisanal miners operate without licenses or permits, making their activities illegal. This can lead to conflicts with authorities and other miners who have legitimate claims to the land.
2. Environmental violations: ASM can cause significant environmental damage, including deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution.
Miners often use harmful chemicals such as mercury to extract coal, which can have long-term health and environmental impacts.
3. Child labor: Artisanal mining often relies on the labor of children, who are forced to work long hours in dangerous conditions for very little pay.
This is a violation of international labor laws and puts children at risk of injury, illness, and exploitation.
4. Human rights abuses: ASM is often associated with violence, including land disputes, forced evictions, and intimidation by armed groups.
Miners may also be subject to exploitation by
middlemen who offer low prices for their products.
5. Smuggling: Artisanal miners often sell their products to middlemen or traders who smuggle the minerals across borders to avoid taxes and export regulations. This can contribute to the funding of criminal or armed groups and deprive countries of much-needed revenue.
6. Governments and international organizations are working to address these criminal aspects of artisanal coal mining.
The Negative Impact of Artisanal and Small- Scale Coal Mining on the Environment Mining in general, and artisanal coal mining in particular, has a significant impact on the environment (Ingram et al., 2011; Hendrychová and Kabrna, 2016;
Macháček, 2019; Owusu et al., 2019; Tiamgne et al., 2022), especially in African countries where the practice is widespread. The classification of the main negative impacts of ASM on the environment is presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3. The main types of negative impacts of artisanal and small-scale coal mining on the environment.
Let us consider these types of negative impacts of ASM on the environment in more detail.
1. Deforestation.
Loss of Biodiversity: Forests are incredibly biodiverse ecosystems, providing habitat for numerous plant and animal species.
Deforestation disrupts these ecosystems, leading to the loss of biodiversity and potentially driving species to extinction (Giam, 2017; Sonter et al., 2018; Boldy et al., 2021).
Carbon Storage and Climate Change: Forests play a crucial role in carbon sequestration, absorbing and storing large amounts of carbon dioxide. Deforestation releases this
stored carbon back into the atmosphere, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and exacerbating climate change (Li et al., 2022).
Soil Erosion and Watershed Disruption:
Forests help regulate water cycles and prevent soil erosion. Removing trees through deforestation can result in increased soil erosion, reduced water infiltration, and altered hydrological patterns, leading to increased sedimentation in water bodies and a loss of soil fertility (Karamage et al., 2016;
Khodadadi et al., 2023).
2. Water pollution (Schwarzenbach et al., 2010; Al- Taai, 2021; Kılıç, 2021; Lin et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2022).
Open Access 4991
Ecological Impacts: Pollution of water bodies through mining activities can have severe ecological consequences. Chemicals like mercury and cyanide, used in mining processes, contaminate water sources and harm aquatic organisms, disrupting the balance of ecosystems and potentially causing long-term damage.
Human Health Risks: Water pollution from mining activities can render water sources unsafe for human consumption and agricultural use. Exposure to contaminated water can lead to serious health issues, including heavy metal poisoning and waterborne diseases.
3. Land degradation.
Soil Degradation: Mining activities can result in soil compaction, loss of topsoil, and altered soil structure, reducing soil fertility and hindering natural plant growth. This can have long-lasting impacts on the land's ability to support vegetation and agricultural productivity (Wang et al., 2021; Mbaya, 2013).
Habitat Destruction: Mining operations often require clearing large areas of land, leading to habitat loss and fragmentation (de Castro
Pena et al., 2017; Scanes, 2018; Kiran et al., 2022). Disruption of habitats can have cascading effects on local wildlife populations, impacting biodiversity and ecological balance.
4. Air pollution.
Human Health Effects: Emissions from coal mining, such as particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, contribute to air pollution. Inhalation of these pollutants can have adverse health effects on both miners and nearby communities, including respiratory problems, cardiovascular diseases, and increased mortality rates (Mishra, 2005; Patra et al., 2016; Stewart, 2020).
Climate Impacts: Air pollutants from coal mining contribute to global climate change.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can react with other compounds in the atmosphere, leading to the formation of acid rain, which harms vegetation and aquatic ecosystems (Munawer, 2018; Hendryx et al., 2020).
Table 2 provides some concrete examples of the negative environmental impacts of artisanal and small- scale coal mining in Africa.
Table 2. Examples of the negative impacts of artisanal and small-scale coal mining in African countries.
Country Description
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)
In the eastern DRC, artisanal coal mining has been linked to the destruction of large areas of forest, including protected areas such as the Virunga National Park. In the DRC, artisanal coal mining is often conducted by local communities, who see mining as a way to earn income and support their families. The forest destruction in the Virunga National Park was largely carried out by illegal armed groups who were operating in the area. These groups were involved in a range of illegal activities, including mining, logging, and poaching, and were responsible for significant environmental damage. The DRC government and international conservation organizations have been working to address the environmental damage caused by artisanal coal mining in the country. Efforts have included strengthening environmental regulations, providing alternative livelihood options for local communities, and increasing law enforcement in protected areas.
However, progress has been slow, and artisanal mining continues to be a major driver of environmental degradation in the country.
Guinea
In the Kankan region of eastern Guinea, artisanal and small-scale coal mining has led to deforestation and land degradation. Forests have been cleared to make way for mining activities, resulting in the loss of vegetation cover and wildlife habitat.
The removal of topsoil during mining has resulted in soil erosion, decreased soil fertility, and deterioration of the land's ability to support vegetation growth.
Madagascar
Artisanal and small-scale coal mining in Madagascar is primarily concentrated in the southern part of the country, particularly in the region of Ihorombe. This region is known for its rich coal deposits, which have attracted informal mining activities for decades (Canavesio, 2014; Stoudmann et al., 2017). Mining activities in Ihorombe have led to significant deforestation, water and air pollution, and land degradation. This has had a major impact on the local ecosystem and biodiversity, as well as the livelihoods of local communities.
Open Access 4992
Country Description
Nigeria
In the Enugu coal mines in southeastern Nigeria, artisanal miners have been known to cut down large areas of forest for timber to support their mining activities. This has led to the loss of important wildlife habitats, as well as increased soil erosion and landslides (Aigbedion, 2007; Ogbonna et al., 2015; Omotehinse and Ako, 2019). It is unclear whether those who cut down the forests have been punished for their actions. Environmental regulation and enforcement in Nigeria are often weak, and there is a lack of accountability for those who engage in environmentally destructive activities. However, there have been some efforts by civil society groups to raise awareness about the negative environmental impacts of artisanal coal mining and to advocate for stronger environmental protections and regulation in the sector.
Rwanda
In Rwanda, artisanal and small-scale coal mining activities have had a negative environmental impact, particularly in the northwest region of the country, in the Rutsiro district (Macháček, 2020). Due to the population growth, which relocates there for mining, there is a higher demand for wood and charcoal in the locality resulting in secondary deforestation. It is noted that the majority of the population is dependent on wood heating and that up to 90 % of power produced uses wood and charcoal as a source (Partow et al., 2011). According to the Rwanda government deforestation mainly through illegal logging in protected forested areas (Macháček, 2019). Nature conservation areas are an important element in the land conservation efforts (Pechanec et al., 2018). A higher proportion of nature conservation areas is associated with a higher proportion of forest areas (Opršal, 2018).
Tanzania
In the southern highlands of Tanzania, artisanal coal mining has been linked to the destruction of forests for timber and charcoal production. The deforestation caused by artisanal and small-scale coal mining in Tanzania has led to a loss of habitat for many species, as well as a reduction in the ability of forests to provide important ecosystem services such as water regulation, carbon sequestration, and soil stabilization.
Zimbabwe
In the Hwange coal fields in western Zimbabwe, artisanal coal mining has been linked to the destruction of forests for timber and charcoal production (Chisango et al., 2015; Ruppen and Brugger, 2022).
In all of these cases (Table 2), there have been serious environmental and conservation impacts, including loss of biodiversity, increased soil erosion and landslides, and increased greenhouse gas emissions due to deforestation. In general, artisanal and small- scale coal mining has a significant impact on the environment, and this impact is often exacerbated by the lack of regulations and enforcement in many African countries. It is, therefore very important to develop and implement sustainable mining practices that minimize the environmental impact of ASM in Africa.
Assessment of Work Safety and Legal Issues of Artisanal and Small-Scale Coal Mining Artisanal and small-scale mining has lower standards of regulation and safety compared to large-scale mining, which makes its workers more prone to accidents, injuries, and diseases (Cossa et al., 2021;
Landrigan et al., 2022). Some of the main health and safety risks for ASM workers include:
Respiratory Issues: Inhalation of coal dust and other airborne particulate matter can lead to respiratory problems, including coal workers' pneumoconiosis (commonly known as black lung disease), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, and other respiratory disorders. Lack of proper ventilation and inadequate respiratory protection exacerbate these risks.
Physical Injuries: ASM workers are at risk of physical injuries resulting from accidents and the use of heavy machinery and tools. These injuries can include fractures, cuts, bruises, and crush injuries. The absence of proper safety protocols, inadequate training, and limited access to personal protective equipment contribute to the heightened risks.
Musculoskeletal Disorders: ASM work often involves repetitive manual labor, heavy lifting, and awkward postures, leading to musculoskeletal disorders such as back pain, joint problems, and strains. Prolonged periods of physical exertion without proper rest and ergonomic considerations can increase the likelihood of such injuries.
Open Access 4993 Exposure to Hazardous Chemicals: Artisanal coal
mining may involve the use of chemicals, including mercury and cyanide, in processing and extraction.
Improper handling and disposal of these chemicals can result in poisoning and long-term health effects, including neurological disorders and organ damage.
Accidents and Cave-ins: The precarious nature of ASM operations increases the risk of accidents and mine collapses. Lack of proper mine support structures, inadequate safety measures, and insufficient training on mine safety contribute to these hazards.
Noise-Induced Hearing Loss: Mining activities generate high levels of noise, particularly in underground operations. Prolonged exposure to excessive noise without appropriate hearing protection
can lead to permanent hearing loss and other hearing- related problems.
Mental Health Challenges: The demanding and often challenging working conditions in ASM can contribute to mental health issues such as stress, anxiety, and depression. Factors such as long working hours, exposure to accidents and injuries, and financial instability can impact the psychological well-being of ASM workers.
Figure 4 shows the main health and safety risks for people who work in ASM (State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector, 2020). However, there are measures that can be taken to ensure the safety of coal miners. One of the ways to improve safety in artisanal and small-scale coal mining is to train workers.
Figure 4. Main health and safety risks for people who work in artisanal and small-scale coal mining.
Training can give miners an understanding of the potential hazards associated with coal mining and how to minimize them. This may include topics such as the use of personal protective equipment, the safe handling of explosive materials, the recognition of potential hazards in the environment, and the importance of following safety regulations. Another method of improving the safety of artisanal miners is the use of ventilation systems during underground coal mining.
These systems ensure that hazardous gases such as carbon monoxide will not accumulate in the underground worked-out space. In addition, ventilation systems can also provide miners with cool air to prevent heat exhaustion. Finally, improved communication technologies can also be used to ensure the safety of miners. Portable communication devices, such as walkie-talkies, can significantly improve coordination between employees and
management, making it easier to respond in the event of an emergency. The legal consequences of artisanal and small-scale coal mining in Africa vary from country to country. In some countries, ASM is prohibited by law and can entail significant fines and even imprisonment. In other countries, this is regulated and can be carried out with the permission of the authorities, including training miners in modern methods of work, and providing equipment and access to industry experts. The informal nature of artisanal mining makes it difficult to regulate and enforce labor rights, especially in remote areas. As a result, employees often face such problems with working conditions as irregular working hours, low wages, etc.
Despite these difficulties, artisanal coal mining remains one of the main sources of livelihood in some rural regions of Africa. Nevertheless, this sector requires a comprehensive and effective regulatory
Open Access 4994 policy, in which priority will be given to the safety of
work, environmental regulation, and the rights of miners. Increasing access to training, financial services, and related technologies can also improve the efficiency and sustainability of this sector.
The Interplay between Artisanal and Small- Scale Coal Mining and Local Economies Exploring the relationship between ASM and the local economy, we consider such key aspects as job
creation, income generation, and the broader implications for poverty alleviation and sustainable development. In many resource-rich regions, ASM serves as a vital economic activity, providing employment opportunities and contributing to local economic growth. Understanding this interplay is crucial for designing effective policies and interventions that harness the potential of ASM while addressing its challenges. Key aspects of the interaction between ASM and the region's economy are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Key aspects of the interaction between ASM and the region's economy
Aspect Description of particular types of interaction implementation
Job Creation
ASM as a Source of Employment: ASM activities often provide direct and indirect employment opportunities for local communities, particularly in rural and marginalized areas. Miners, support services, traders, and other associated industries contribute to job creation, helping to alleviate unemployment and underemployment.
Gender Dimensions: ASM can have unique gender dynamics, with women often playing important roles in various stages of mining, such as processing, trading, and support services. Recognizing and promoting gender equity in ASM can enhance inclusive economic growth.
Income Generation
Livelihood Diversification: ASM can serve as an alternative income source for individuals and communities who lack formal employment opportunities. Income generated from ASM activities can contribute to household livelihoods, helping to improve living standards, access to education, healthcare, and other basic needs.
Value Chain Linkages: ASM can stimulate economic linkages, creating opportunities for local businesses and supporting the growth of downstream industries. Local procurement of goods and services by ASM operations can foster entrepreneurship and local economic development.
Poverty Alleviation
Economic Empowerment: ASM has the potential to uplift individuals and communities out of poverty by providing income-generating opportunities.
However, ensuring equitable distribution of benefits and addressing income disparities is crucial to achieve sustainable poverty reduction.
Social Development: Increased income from ASM can have positive spillover effects on education, healthcare, and social infrastructure, contributing to human development indices and poverty reduction efforts.
Implications for Sustainable Development
Environmental Considerations: ASM activities must be aligned with sustainable development principles to minimize negative environmental impacts.
Implementing responsible mining practices, promoting land restoration, and adopting cleaner and more efficient technologies can contribute to sustainable development goals.
Institutional Support: Adequate legal and regulatory frameworks, access to finance, capacity building, and technical assistance are essential to enhance the sustainability of ASM operations and enable their integration into formal economies.
By understanding the complexities and dynamics of this relationship, policymakers and stakeholders can design strategies to harness the potential of ASM for inclusive economic growth and improved well-being in local communities.
Conclusions
The advantages of artisanal and small-scale coal mining in the African region for the local population
are very significant – this type of activity provides income and gives heat to the homes of people from areas with poorly developed economies. It is also an inexpensive option compared to large-scale mechanized mining, allowing a large number of people to access coal resources. With these positive aspects, we must not forget the negative environmental and human consequences of artisanal and small-scale mining:
Deforestation: artisanal coal mining often involves the clearing of large areas of forest to make way for
Open Access 4995 mining activities. This can have a significant impact on
biodiversity and the ecosystem services provided by forests, including soil conservation, water regulation, and carbon sequestration.
Water pollution: the excavation of coal can lead to the release of toxic chemicals and heavy metals, which can contaminate nearby water sources, including rivers and streams. This can have serious consequences for aquatic life and the health of people who rely on these water sources for drinking and irrigation.
Land degradation: artisanal coal mining involves the excavation of soil and rock, which can lead to soil erosion and degradation of the land. The loss of vegetation cover and topsoil can lead to a decline in soil fertility, making it difficult for vegetation to grow in the affected areas.
Air pollution: artisanal coal mining often involves the burning of coal to produce energy, which can release harmful particulate matter and other pollutants into the air. This can have serious health consequences for people living in the vicinity of the mining sites.
To ensure responsible and sustainable coal mining practices, African Governments should develop policies governing artisanal coal mining, provide financial incentives for compliance, and spare no effort to protect workers and the environment. Overall, the interplay between artisanal and small-scale coal mining and local economies can have significant implications for job creation, income generation, poverty alleviation, and sustainable development.
However, addressing the challenges associated with ASM, such as informality, environmental impacts, and social inequalities, is crucial to unlock its full potential.
Policymakers, stakeholders, and local communities need to work together to develop strategies that promote responsible mining practices, create enabling environments, and ensure that the benefits of ASM are shared equitably, fostering inclusive and sustainable development.
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