Brit J Educational Tech - 2024 - Aloizou - Integrating a movement‐based learning platform as core curriculum tool in

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Br J Educ Technol. 2025;56:339–365. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/bjet | 339

O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E

Integrating a movement- based learning platform as core curriculum tool in

kindergarten classrooms

Valeria Aloizou | Stavey Linardatou | Michael Boloudakis | Symeon Retalis

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.

Department of Digital Systems, University of Piraeus, Piraeus, Greece

Correspondence

Valeria Aloizou, Department of Digital Systems, University of Piraeus, 150 Androutsou Odyssea, Piraeus 18532, Greece.

Email: [email protected], aloizouv@gmail.

com

Abstract

Incorporating immersive technologies in education has become increasingly popular due to their ability to facilitate active learning and engage students in the acquisition of concepts and skills. One form of immersive technology includes educational games that incorporate movement interaction, allowing children to engage with in- game elements by either immersing their own image within the game environment or by controlling an avatar using their hand and body gestures. Nonetheless, successfully incorporating these technologies into classrooms with sizable student populations presents a challenge, necessitat- ing the implementation of a well- considered design approach. This paper introduces a systematic learning design approach facilitating the integration of a movement- based learning platform as a core curriculum tool in multimodal learning stations within authentic Kindergarten classroom settings. The design approach was evaluated in a case study involving three kindergarten teachers and 49 students conducted over a full school year. Progress data were gathered utilizing a combination of quantitative and qualitative evaluation tools. Analysis of the data suggests that integrating multimodal learning activities led to improvements in overall academic performance, particularly in critical mathematical skills compared to pre- test scores. Teachers expressed a positive

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INTRODUCTION

Digital technologies have become an integral component of early childhood education, a shift recognized by educational authorities such as the National Association for the Education of Young Children and the Fred Rogers Centre for Early Learning and Children's Media (2012) and scholars (Bird & Edwards, 2015; Yelland, 2011). These discussions encompass an exploration of the multifaceted impact of digital technologies on various facets of young children's lives, including their social interactions (Eagle, 2012), cognitive development and specific learning domains such as literacy and numeracy (Sinclair, 2018; Voogt & McKenney, 2017).

Immersive technologies have gained increasing popularity in K- 12 education (MacDowell

& Lock, 2023), as digital tools that can foster collaborative learning environments, facilitate hands- on learning opportunities, enhance spatial and problem- solving skills (Lee- Cultura et al., 2020, 2022; Skulmowski & Rey, 2018), provide personalized learning experiences (Dick, 2021) and enable the collection of multimodal data to better understand learning processes (Giannakos et al., 2021).

However, designing effective immersive learning experiences remains a question (MacDowell & Lock, 2023). Effective integration of technology in education is not solely reliant on technology, but rather on the pedagogical strategies used by educators and how they utilize the learning affordances of immersive environments to meet learning outcomes (Cheng & Tsai, 2019; Dias & Atkinson, 2001; Southgate, 2020). To ensure that immersive technologies are used safely and effectively, Fowler (2014) suggests that pedagogical guide- lines and best practices should be developed and presented in a manner that practitioners can apply in their teaching and learning. Kuhail et al. (2022) suggest that future studies should focus on developing a conceptual framework for implementing immersive learning experiences in different contexts and providing guidance on deployment and integration in classroom settings.

The movement- based learning games fall under the category of immersive technologies that merge real and virtual worlds (Milgram & Kishino, 1994). Various researchers have examined the effects of movement- based learning games in both general and special education contexts (Abrahamson, 2013; Bartoli et al., 2013, 2014; Kosmas et al., 2017;

Kosmas, Ioannou, & Retalis, 2018; Kourakli et al., 2017; Malinverni et al., 2016, 2019). These attitude towards the integration of movement- based games using the learning design approach, finding it to be beneficial and effective for student learning.

The study emphasizes the importance of purposeful design in creating immersive learning experiences and underscores the significance of utilizing multiple representations to enhance student motivation and engagement. The proposed systematic learning design approach has the potential to be applied to a broad range of grade levels, academic subjects and educational contexts to facilitate the integration of immersive technologies.

K E Y W O R D S

backward design, immersive technologies, learning stations, movement- based learning games, multimodal learning, multiple representations, UDL

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investigations have explored how these games can improve cognitive functioning and academic performance in subjects such as mathematics and language (Abrahamson, 2013;

Cassar & Jang, 2010; Chang et al., 2013; Donnelly & Lambourne, 2011; Kosmas &

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic?

• Immersive technologies are becoming popular in education.

• Immersive technologies have been shown to enhance skills and enable the collection of multimodal data to better understand learning processes.

• The movement- based learning games fall under the category of immersive technologies that merge real and virtual worlds.

• Designing effective immersive learning experiences for these new technology- enhanced learning environments remains a question.

What this paper adds

• A proposed systematic learning design approach that demonstrates the way that movement- based learning games can be used seamlessly as core curriculum tool in authentic kindergarten settings for an entire school year.

• Ways to engage effectively a large classroom of 20 or more students with movement- based learning games.

• Findings regarding the impact of the movement- based games on student engagement, academic achievement, cognitive development and social–emotional growth.

• Teachers' perceptions and attitudes towards executing movement- based learning experiences in their classrooms using the proposed systematic learning design approach.

Implications for practice and/or policy

• In- service kindergarten and primary school teachers can adopt the proposed systematic learning design approach to integrate immersive technologies into the curriculum. This ensures that these technologies are used consistently throughout the school year, providing continuous and engaging learning experiences.

• School district administrators can use the proposed approach to develop training programs for pre- service and in- service kindergarten and primary school teachers, focusing on understanding the immersive technology, managing large classrooms and integrating the games into daily lesson plans.

• School administrators can implement the proposed systematic learning design approach to establish robust systems for monitoring and assessing the impact of immersive technologies on student engagement, academic achievement, cognitive development and social–emotional growth.

• Special education in- service teachers can leverage the flexibility of the movement- based learning games to design personalized learning experiences for their students with special needs. This involves adjusting the difficulty level, pace and type of interaction to meet individual requirements.

• Special education administrators can promote the use of the proposed approach to foster an inclusive learning environment where all students, regardless of their abilities, can participate and benefit from the immersive technologies.

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Zaphiris, 2023; Kourakli et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2012), facilitate motoric performance (Kosmas et al., 2017), offer potential health benefits (Johnson- Glenberg, Birchfield, et al., 2014;

Lieberman et al., 2011) and promote self- efficacy, happiness and motivation (Staiano &

Calvert, 2011). Although movement- based learning games have the potential to be used in different educational settings, there is still a lack of empirical evidence on their integration as part of the curriculum in authentic classroom environments following learning design principles (Georgiou & Ioannou, 2021; Kosmas, Ioannou, & Zaphiris, 2018), particularly in kindergarten grade level.

In this study, a systematic learning design approach is introduced for the seamless integration of movement- based learning games as a core curriculum tool alongside non- digital resources to teach fundamental mathematical concepts within the context of early childhood education. This educational pursuit is based on the idea that teaching math to young children is crucial for their later success in school. A growing body of scholarly research has underscored the profound impact of early mathematical proficiency on later scholastic success, reinforcing the significance of early mathematics education in the educational landscape (Aunio

& Niemivirta, 2010; Aunola et al., 2004; Baumert et al., 2010; Cerezci, 2021; Clements &

Sarama, 2009a, 2009b; Duncan et al., 2007; Ginsburg et al., 2008; Hachey, 2013; Mix, 2001).

Subsequently, we present the pedagogical frameworks, strategies and practices that were de- ployed to design the proposed systematic learning design approach, which was implemented in a case study aimed at addressing the following research question (RQ): How effective was the integration of movement- based learning games as a core curriculum tool in traditional kindergarten classrooms using the proposed systematic learning design approach?

Specifically, it examines the impact on student engagement, academic achievement, cognitive development and social–emotional growth. Our focus on these research variables is supported by Georgiou and Ioannou's (2019) extensive review of the empirical research conducted between 2008 and 2017, which predominantly employed pre- post questionnaires (73.2%), interviews (41.5%) and observations via field notes, annotations and video, to evaluate student learning outcomes in embodied learning environments. This review study en- compassed findings that consistently showcased the positive impact of such environments across various domains of Bloom's taxonomy (Bloom, 1956), including cognitive, affective and psychomotor learning outcomes. Additionally, research by Zhong et al. (2021) emphasized the benefits, highlighting the effectiveness of movement- based learning in improv- ing comprehension, retention, engagement, learning attitude and cognitive load reduction, findings supported by Jusslin et al. (2022). Teachers' perceptions and attitudes towards designing learning activities and executing movement- based learning experiences in their classrooms are also examined. The research questions, evaluation tools, participants and findings of the validation study are outlined.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Immersive learning, driven by advanced technology, expands educational possibilities be- yond physical constraints (Dick, 2021). It encompasses: (i) augmented reality (AR), which overlays digital content on the real world enhancing understanding, (ii) virtual reality (VR) which offers fully digital environments, immersing users with 360- degree views and sur- round sound and (iii) mixed reality (MR) which goes further by enabling virtual objects to interact with real ones (Donally, 2021). Collectively, these technologies fall under extended reality (XR), offering concrete, hands- on experiences that boost engagement and deepen problem- solving (Pomerantz & Rode, 2020).

Movement- based learning games complement and enhance the immersive qualities of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) technologies, amplifying their potential and

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rendering them invaluable tools for educators striving to foster dynamic and effective learning environments. Research findings have underscored several facets of these games that contribute to heightened immersion and engagement within educational contexts (Bianchi- Berthouze et al., 2007; Johnson et al., 2010; Pasch et al., 2009). One key facet is the facili- tation of more natural and enriched interactions with learning tasks. Through bodily motions and gestures, students engage with educational content on a kinesthetic level, forging a deeper connection with the material. Moreover, they offer an additional layer of immersion by granting students agency over avatars or enabling them to perceive themselves within the virtual gaming environment. This agency generates a sense of challenge, intrigue and excitement, enriching the overall learning experience. Johnson- Glenberg and her col- leagues (2014, 2016, 2017), in their research spanning multiple years, have delineated that movement- based learning games excel in sensorimotor engagement, making bodily motion integral to learning, prioritize gestural congruency for seamless alignment with content and their immersion hinges on display type and configuration, fostering a strong sense of pres- ence in virtual environments.

Movement- based learning games often incorporate motion tracking systems like the Wii or Leap Motion, which enable precise monitoring of hand gestures and body movements, sometimes mapped directly to the educational content. These games are commonly presented on expansive screens, interactive floors, 360- degree head- mounted displays or within virtual and mixed- reality environments. This diverse array of display options contrib- utes to their perceived immersion. The introduction of the low- cost Kinect sensor in 2010 was pivotal. Games like Pico's Adventures, Alien Health, Jumpido Games, Little Magic Stories and Kinetic Stories nurture social and communication skills, while Alien Health and Pictogram Room focus on everyday skills. Some Kinect games, like Games4Learning, Jumpido Games, Kaplan Early Learning, Kinems Learning Games and Xdigit, emphasize academic and cognitive skill development, merging physical activity with learning.

The existing studies on movement- based learning games have typically been conducted in a fragmented manner, ranging from a few sessions to 5 months in duration (Altanis et al., 2013; Bartoli et al., 2013, 2014; Georgiou et al., 2019; Kourakli et al., 2017; Lee- Cultura et al., 2020; Retalis et al., 2014). In the study presented in this paper, we extend the focus of previous research on movement- based learning games by examining their effectiveness when integrated as a core curriculum tool in the classroom for an entire school year, rather than using them incrementally. To achieve this, we chose the Kinems Learning Games platform, specifically designed for PreK- 5 students to enhance math and literacy skills while simultaneously promoting physical and cognitive development. This platform leverages movement- based technology primarily utilizing the Microsoft Kinect sensor to facilitate interactions, supporting teachers in immersing children in mixed- reality learning experiences.

Students typically engage with the Kinems Learning Games platform through physical movements, utilizing gesture recognition technology for interaction. Real- time feedback, often in the form of visual cues or auditory signals, enhances their learning experience. These educational games cover various subjects from math to problem- solving. The platform tracks progress, aiding educators in assessing individual strengths and areas for improvement while allowing for personalization to align with specific learning goals. Its interactive and inclusive design fosters engagement and motivation among students with diverse abilities.

PURPOSE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study investigates the effectiveness of integrating movement- based learning games as a core curriculum tool for a full school year with the use of the learning design approach, ex- ploring their impact on student engagement, academic achievement, cognitive development

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and social–emotional growth. Additionally, it assesses teachers' perceptions and attitudes towards incorporating these learning experiences into their classrooms, emphasizing the seamless transition between digital immersive movement- based and non- digital math activities. Three sub- questions with five informative questions (IQ) each were formulated, for the needs of this study (see Figure 1):

RQ1. How did the integration of movement- based games in learning stations, including both digital and non- digital activities, affects student academic achievement, cognitive development and social–emotional growth? RQ1 investigates the effect of integrating movement- based games in learning stations on the academic achievement, cognitive development (I.Q.1.1) and social–emotional growth of students (I.Q.1.2).

RQ2. In what ways did the integration of movement- based games in learning stations impact the classroom overall academic performance? RQ2 seeks to provide insights into the impact of the integration of movement- based games in learning stations on the classroom's overall academic performance during the sessions (I.Q.2.1) and academic progress in three key mathematical skills (I.Q.2.2).

RQ3. What were the teachers' attitudes and perceptions regarding the implementation of movement- based games in learning stations with the use of the learning design approach? RQ3 seeks to gather information on teachers' perceptions and attitudes towards the development (I.Q.3.1) and implementation (I.Q.3.2) of the movement- based learning experiences in their kindergarten classrooms.

F I G U R E 1 The Research Question with the three sub- questions (circles) and informative questions (rectangles) of the case study.

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METHODS

A comprehensive case study methodology was employed to thoroughly investigate the integration of movement- based learning games in early childhood education for a whole school year. Data were collected through multiple evaluation tools, including learning & kinesthetic analytics, summative math tests, pre- and post- tests, teachers' journals and social validity surveys. By combining both quantitative and qualitative analyses, this case study adopted a multifaceted approach to address research questions comprehensively, ultimately offering a holistic understanding of the effectiveness of movement- based learning games in early childhood education settings (Yin, 2009). This approach underscores the significance of multimodal data collection and analysis in educational research.

A SYSTEMATIC LEARNING DESIGN APPROACH FOR

SCHOOL YEAR- LONG INTEGRATION OF MOVEMENT- BASED LEARNING EXPERIENCES AS CORE CURRICULUM TOOL

In order to seamlessly incorporate movement- based learning experiences as a core curriculum tool for teaching math concepts in an authentic kindergarten classroom throughout an entire school year, a systematic learning design approach was meticulously designed, en- compassing a set of crucial learning design principles. The selection of math objectives for the entire school year was carried out following the principles of a widely recognized framework known as backward design (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). This approach entails starting with the ultimate learning goals and working backwards to plan instruction that effectively leads students to achieve those goals. Backward design is widely employed in curriculum and lesson planning to achieve learning outcomes (Brown & Prendergast, 2020; Graff, 2011; Hosseini et al., 2019; Kelting- Gibson, 2005; Mills et al., 2019; Shumway & Berrett, 2004; Stiler, 2009), enhance engagement (Li et al., 2020; Rosiene & Rosiene, 2022) and incorporate immersive technologies (Beaumier & Koole, 2023). In this study, we adhered to the three core stages of backward design, as advocated by Wiggins and McTighe (2005): firstly, identifying the long- term math objectives; secondly, determining the desired evidence for post- test assessment and finally, planning the necessary learning activities to attain these goals (Figure 2).

F I G U R E 2 Stages of backward course design model.

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To ensure effective school year- long implementation, we organized math activities to align with children's developmental stages. Learning trajectories were used to sequence the learning activities, as exemplified in Figure 3 for the shapes unit (S). Studies have shown that learning trajectories are valuable for guiding early childhood math instruction, respect- ing children's development and enhancing their understanding of mathematical concepts (Clements & Sarama, 2009b, 2014, 2017).

To optimize resource use and create engaging math activities tailored to kindergarten students, we adopted multiple representations according to the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles (Lohmann et al., 2018; Mayer et al., 2014). Research has shown that using multiple representations enhances learning, particularly when combining text and graphics or multisensory elements (Barwise & Etchemendy, 1992; Kalyuga, 2000;

Mayer, 1997; Schnotz, 2002; TindallFord et al., 1997). Ainsworth (2006) emphasized the value of multiple representations, as they promote deeper understanding. In mathematics education, various theories highlight the importance of multiple representations (Dienes, 1973).

Context and games

The implementation of the learning design approach was structured around the Kinems Learning Games platform, which provides immersive, multimodal digital and non- digital learning experiences in accordance with the principles of UDL. The activities encompass four different modalities: kinesthetic/movement- based learning, PC/tablet- based personalized learning, collaborative learning and pencil and paper learning, catering to various learning styles (Kosmas, Ioannou, & Zaphiris, 2018; Retalis et al., 2014).

In the kinesthetic/movement- based learning modality, students engage in physical, immersive learning activities in front of a Kinect depth sensor, that involve body gestures, such as jumping, stretching or manipulating virtual objects, reinforcing learning concepts through active learning. Once a game starts, a set of questions appears based on the academic concept. Students either listen to the instruction or read it to provide the correct answer. Once they decide on the answer, they must perform a movement based on the

F I G U R E 3 Example of a learning trajectory for the shapes unit.

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design of the game. For example, in games where the avatar is a little frog, students must sidestep, stand under the game element with their answer and jump to select it. In other games, students are immersed in the gaming environment; they can see themselves as part of the game and select answers by sidestepping and stretching their hands to select the object (Figure 4). While students practice, they receive positive messages (eg, ‘Nice!’,

‘Good Work!’) paired with celebratory animations (eg, an eruption of sparkles, bubbles or confetti) upon making a correct match. Incorrect matches prompt messages of encour- agement (eg, ‘Try Again!’). Students are not penalized for incorrect matches and are per- mitted unlimited attempts. Settings such as running timer or game lives can be adjusted by teachers through the settings.

In the PC/tablet- based personalized learning modality, students utilize PCs or tab- lets to practice with the Kinems activities, allowing them to reinforce concepts at their own pace and according to their individual learning needs. Students engage with the content by selecting answers or completing tasks using touchscreen gestures or mouse clicks, receiving feedback based on their responses. Collaborative learning encourages students to work together on tasks that involve cutting, gluing and creating boards and cards, fostering teamwork and communication skills while reinforcing learning concepts.

Students are encouraged to use the manipulatives to work together. For example, they may sort out objects or create patterns. In pencil and paper learning activities, students engage with traditional instructional materials, such as worksheets, to consolidate their understanding in academic concepts. They use pencils or crayons to complete exercises and activities printed on paper, following instructions provided on the worksheets. These activities typically include a mix of visual representations, instructions and questions related to specific math skills or concepts. Students write, draw or colour the responses (Figure 5).

F I G U R E 4 Kindergarten students actively engaged in immersive Kinems learning activities incorporating physical movement.

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Participants

In the case study, two kindergarten teachers, one teacher assistant and a cohort of 49 five- year- old students participated. This group comprised 26 girls, constituting approximately 53% of the total students and 23 boys, making up the remaining 47%.

Research procedure

The learning interventions occurred weekly over 28 weeks in two kindergarten classrooms of a private school, lasting 60–90 minutes each. During the intervention, students were divided and worked in mixed- ability groups of 4–5 students. The researchers provided teachers with selected and sequenced learning activities to orchestrate their classrooms into learning stations. The lesson began with a 10- minute short presentation delivered by the classroom teacher to introduce students to the lesson topic and the Learning Station Rotation model (Maxwell & White, 2017). Subsequently, each student group had 15 minutes to work in every learning station, taking turns one by one in the movement station. Student groups transi- tioned from station to station signalled by a bell at the end of the rotation. The kindergarten teachers' role was to organize classroom learning stations, create resources for extra stations, deliver the sessions offering guidance as needed and assess student performance both before and after the interventions. One learning station incorporated movement- based learning technology, while the other five employed board games, paper- and- pencil tools and manipulatives (Figure 6).

Table 1 includes an example description of learning activities and their corresponding resources for the ‘Compose larger shapes by identifying and selecting smaller shapes’ kindergarten math activity.

The movement- based tool played a crucial role by creating motivation for students to practice math concepts actively. Unlike traditional learning methods that may confine students to their seats, the movement- based tool encouraged students to stand up and move, providing a dynamic and engaging learning experience. This active learning not only captured students' attention but also stimulated their physical involvement, making learning more enjoyable. It also promoted kinesthetic learning, which is essential for the holistic development.

F I G U R E 5 Kinems learning games multiple modalities.

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Data collection

The assessment tools employed in this study were as follows. To address RQ1, we utilized the following evaluation tools:

Learning & kinesthetic analytics: The Kinems platform offers a dynamic assessment that records each student's academic performance in tables, graphs and reports, which are saved in a cloud- based system. This tool was val- idated through previous studies (Kosmas, Ioannou, & Retalis, 2018; Kourakli et al., 2017), demonstrating its effectiveness and appropriateness for assessing the learning progress of young children. For our study, we used Kinems platform analytics to evaluate students' academic performance in counting and cardinality, shapes, measurable attributes, addition, subtraction and place value, by examining the mastery level, which is derived from accuracy scores and reaction times in each activity.

Summative math test: It was carefully developed in collaboration with the ex- perienced school principal in mathematics education, who also executed the test with the students, ensuring its face validity. The assessment tasks covered the mathematical concepts of counting and cardinality, shapes, measurable attributes, addition, subtraction and place value. Students engage in hands- on activities such as counting objects, identifying and sorting shapes, measuring

F I G U R E 6 Students working with multiple modalities in learning stations practising ‘Compose larger shapes by identifying and selecting smaller shapes’.

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TABLE 1Description of multimodal learning activities and resources for the activity ‘compose larger shapes by identifying and selecting smaller shapes’. Learning StationResourcesDescriptionPicture 1. Movement- based learning Shape in Place Kinems movement- based game

In the “Shape in Place” game, students manipulate simple shapes to form larger shapes and real- world objects by dragging and dropping them into appropriate slots. Teachers can choose between two interaction styles: grab & move or time- delay selection and movement. Teachers can select the interaction style that best suits each student's motor skills level, enhancing their problem- solving abilities, concentration, and gross motor skills. The game reinforces shape recognition while also promoting hand stability and middle- line crossing. Additionally, a “help option” can be activated to highlight the puzzle piece and its correct position, aiding students in completing the task. Teachers have the flexibility to adjust the timer for task completion 2. Collaborative learningShape in Place Kinems Board Game

At the second station, students engage in a hands- on activity using Kinems set of boards and shape cards. Working in pairs, they begin by selecting smaller shapes from the cards provided. Next, they carefully cut out these smaller shapes and arrange them in various combinations to form larger shapes. Using glue, they stick the smaller shapes together to create the larger shapes as indicated on the boards. Throughout the activity, students collaborate, problem- solve, and explore geometric concepts as they manipulate the shapes to construct their designs 3. Pencil & paper learningShape in Place Kinems worksheet

At the third station, students participate in a traditional paper and pencil activity facilitated by Kinems. They are provided with worksheets containing smaller shapes alongside larger shapes, each with corresponding shadows. Students are instructed to carefully observe the shapes and shadows, and then draw lines to connect each small shape to its matching shadow within the larger shape. This activity encourages students to practice visual discrimination, spatial awareness, and fine motor skills as they accurately match shapes and shadows. Additionally, it reinforces concepts related to shape recognition and understanding of spatial relationships 4. Shape collageBlank piece of paper and small geometric shapes

At the fourth station, students are presented with an assortment of small geometric shapes, including triangles, squares, rectangles, and circles. They are tasked with using these shapes to construct larger shapes or objects on either a blank piece of paper or a felt board. Encouraged to unleash their creativity, students work collaboratively in their group to explore various arrangements of the shapes, aiming to form recognizable images such as animals, houses, or vehicles. This activity promotes spatial reasoning, problem- solving, and teamwork skills as students experiment with different combinations to bring their imaginative creations to life. Through hands- on engagement with geometric concepts, students develop a deeper understanding of shape composition and design while fostering their artistic expression

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Learning StationResourcesDescriptionPicture 5. Tangram puzzlesTangram board and shapes

At this station, students engage in hands- on exploration with tangram pieces, geometric shapes that can be arranged to form various larger shapes and designs. They are presented with a set of tangram pieces and are challenged to recreate specific shapes or patterns displayed on cards or worksheets. Through trial and error, students manipulate the tangram pieces in pairs, experimenting with different arrangements until they successfully match the given shapes or patterns. This activity fosters spatial awareness, critical thinking, and fine motor skills as students navigate the challenge of fitting the pieces together accurately. By providing a tangible and interactive learning experience, students gain a deeper understanding of geometric concepts and problem- solving strategies 6. Shape foam blocksSet of foam blocks and activity cards

At this station, students are supplied with shape foam blocks in diverse shapes and colors, including triangles, squares, and circles. They are then presented with pattern cards illustrating larger shapes or designs composed of smaller shapes. Working in pairs, students engage in replicating the shapes or designs depicted on the cards using the pattern blocks. Emphasizing spatial reasoning and geometric relationships, students explore various combinations and orientations of the blocks to accurately match the patterns. Through hands- on manipulation of the foam blocks, students enhance their understanding of shape composition and develop critical thinking skills as they tackle the challenge of recreating complex patterns

TABLE 1(Continued)

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lengths, solving addition and subtraction problems with objects and understanding place value using base- ten blocks and were assessed by utilizing a 4- point scale ranging from 1 (poor) to 4 (excellent).

Teaching journal: Keeping a teaching journal is a way for educators to monitor, assess and improve student development (Maloney & Campbell- Evans, 2002).

Typically kept in a notebook, book or electronic form (Hiemstra, 2001), for this study, researchers created an electronic teaching journal allowing teachers to record personal notes and comments after each session.

The evaluation tools used to investigate RQ2 were:

Teaching journal: The electronic teaching journal created by the researchers also included a PET- GAS (Kiresuk et al., 1994), a 5- point rating scale ranging from −2 (much lower levels of performance) to +2 (much more than expected) to evaluate overall classroom academic performance and engagement level at the end of each session. PET- GAS scale has been widely implemented in school environments for assessing a range of skills (Brady et al., 2014; Chiarello et al., 2016).

Pre- and post- tests: They were carefully developed in collaboration with the ex- perienced school principal in mathematics education, who also executed the tests with the students, ensuring their face validity. The assessment tasks covered key mathematical skills for school readiness, including calculus, geome- try and simple math problems. Students were evaluated through tasks such as counting objects, identifying shapes and solving basic addition and subtraction problems using manipulatives, by utilizing a scale ranging from 1 to 4, with 1 representing the lowest mastery level and 4 the highest. The statistical analysis involved the investigation of the differences between pre- and post- test scores on students' learning scores.

To investigate the RQ3 the study employed the following evaluation tool:

Social validity survey: It was developed by researchers based on social validity surveys used in applied behaviour analysis and education (Carter &

Wheeler, 2019), incorporating statements and a scale ranging from ‘Strongly Disagree’ to ‘Strongly Agree’. It also included an open question so that teachers could provide comments regarding the strong and weak points of the enactment.

The main focus was to assess teachers' attitudes towards the implementation of movement- based games in everyday educational practice, their perception of the time and effort invested and the ease of implementation. Additionally, it aimed to evaluate teachers' beliefs regarding the effectiveness of the games for student learning, their satisfaction with the proposed learning design approach and their understanding of the implementation procedures. It was carried out at the end of the school year by the researchers.

Teaching journal: The electronic teaching journal created by the researchers also included a 5- point scale ranging from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good). It was strategically chosen to capture teachers' perceptions regarding the effectiveness of the classroom orchestration in learning stations.

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Data analysis methods

The data collected through the evaluation tools employed in this study underwent analysis by the researchers, to address the research questions comprehensively. Quantitative data, stemming from the summative math test and the pre- and post- tests, underwent statistical scrutiny. The normality of data distribution was first assessed using the Shapiro–Wilks test, further confirmed by qualitative–quantitative plots (Q–Q plots). Statistical analysis was conducted utilizing the R programming language within RStudio. Given the non- normal distribution of data, the pairwise Wilcoxon signed- rank test (Mann–Whitney U) was chosen to assess potential differences in students' performance before and after the intervention.

Furthermore, effect sizes were computed through Cohen's d, providing insights into the practical significance of observed differences. A confidence level of 95% (p < 0.05) was set to establish statistical significance.

Analysing teachers' journals, we examined the classrooms' academic performance, the orchestration of learning stations and the strong and weak points of the enactment. This involved (i) gathering teachers' perceptions using the GAS scale to assess whether the enactment of learning sessions at multimodal stations led to the accomplishment of desired learning goals, (ii) gathering teachers' perceptions using a 5- point scale to evaluate the quality and effectiveness of classroom orchestration in learning stations for each session and (iii) reviewing teachers' comments about the strong and weak points of the enactment.

To ensure the reliability of the data collected, researchers communicated with the teachers during the first learning sessions to ensure accurate journal completion. To ensure the reliability of the collected data, the researchers communicated with the teachers during the initial learning sessions to ensure accurate completion of the journals.

The data collected by researchers from the social validity survey was analysed using qualitative methods. Two researchers independently coded the responses to ensure reliability and consistency. Any discrepancies were resolved through discussion and consensus.

The coding process involved identifying key themes and patterns in the responses, which were then organized and synthesized to draw meaningful conclusions about teachers' attitudes and perceptions.

FINDINGS

RQ#1: Students' academic achievement, cognitive development &

social–emotional growth

The assessment of students' academic and cognitive progress relied on two key indicators, namely accuracy (ie, the total number of correct questions) and speed (ie, the time taken to complete learning activities). These data were collected through the Kinems platform which provides an overview of students' mastery levels across various math goals. The selected math units and their corresponding goals are presented in Figure 7.

By examining the relationship between accuracy scores and reaction time, it was found that most students had either fully mastered (accuracy score of 80% or above) or partially mastered (accuracy score between 50% and 80%) the assigned math goals, with only a few students struggling and in most goals, none at all (Figure 8). The research results are significant as they indicate that academic achievement was positively impacted by the implementation of movement- based learning stations using multiple modalities, even with a practice frequency of only once per week. The retrieved aggregated data provided valuable insights into the progress of the students. Detailed reports also yielded crucial information on students' session- wise and overall progress. Monitoring in detail each student's performance in

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Kinems- enabled activities, we could see the students' progress on each separate learning goal in terms of accuracy and reaction time.

For example, a student's progress in Kinems- enabled activity related to the learning goal GR.MATH.CONTENT.PK.G.1b (Goal S1) is illustrated in Figure 9 after completing 10 groups of questions. During the sessions, the first student demonstrated a notable improvement in accuracy and reaction time, achieving a final 100% score with a reaction time of 6.9 seconds.

Another example shows the progress of a student in a letter tracing activity related to the goal CC2 is illustrated in Figure 10. This particular student attained the highest score in the post- test.

The summative math test results revealed that most students displayed excellent or good knowledge in the respective units by the end of the academic year, as shown in Figure 11.

This finding holds significant importance in terms of students' academic performance, as no students were evaluated as average or poor.

Moreover, teachers' journal notes provide further evidence of progress in academic and cognitive skills, as well as an improvement in students' social–emotional skills. The notes specifically mention that over the 28 weeks of implementation, students: (i) successfully achieved their math goals, (ii) accomplished group goals, (iii) developed stronger cooperation

F I G U R E 7 A visual representation depicting the chosen mathematical units and objectives.

F I G U R E 8 Students' mastery level per math goal.

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skills and (iv) enhanced self- esteem and self- confidence. The teachers overall reported that the positive learning experience had a significant impact on the classroom dynamics, specifically noting an improvement in teamwork and collaboration among the students.

RQ#2: Classroom's academic performance in learning stations

The majority of classroom sessions, specifically 36 out of 56 (equivalent to 28 sessions per classroom), showed an academic performance that exceeded expectations (+2) on the GAS scale as indicated in Figure 12. This finding was also supported by teachers' feedback such as, ‘Students demonstrated a strong comprehension of the academic concept and

F I G U R E 9 Kinems learning games graphic display of accuracy score and reaction time over time.

F I G U R E 10 The kinesthetic analytics of the Zoko Write game from Kinems learning games.