Again, I want to say that this book aims to provide students of the English department with the basic knowledge of the study of linguistics. There are many explanations in the literature to clarify the main elements of language study, and this coursebook provides what English Department students need.
Language: An Introduction
The Definition of Language
This definition reflects that language is used to transform ideas, express feelings and express desires in the form of words. Because language is human, and language in this context is meant as language used by humans and not other creatures.
The Origins of Language and Human
Accordingly, in Indonesian there are some examples of words taken from the process of imitating natural sounds, such as: "berkokok" is taken from the sound of a rooster. It is difficult to conclude that all the words in the above examples are taken from the sound of nature, as we find no scientific evidence or records.
The Properties of Language
In addition, Richards and Schmidt state that it is a special feature of language that refers to the fact that languages are organized in terms of two levels. In order to have meaning, it must be combined with other letters such as "a", "r" and "e" to form the word "care".
Language and Its Functions
This is necessary because he will not be able to remember the lecturer's entire explanation for the whole semester. We avoid using "be" in the passive to slow down the flow and take up too much space with very little content.
The Definition of Linguistics
The categorical constituent structure of the sentence can be represented in the form of a Phrase Marker (Redford: 1996:109). In line with this, Yule states that semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrase and sentence.
General Linguistics
Linguists have added that general linguistics pertains to language as part of [human] behavior and human ability that is perceived and in terms of universality (Alwasilah, 1987). In other words it is looking for generalizations that are ideally applied to the language all over the world.
Diachronic Linguistics
Comparative Linguistics
Descriptive Linguistics
While phonetics deals with individual speech sounds, phonology deals with systems involving sounds. Pragmatics is concerned with the way in which speakers or listeners can influence the meaning of a statement that they interpret in context.
Phonetics
It deals with the transmission of speech sound through the air (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:398). Auditory phonetics (or perceptual phonetics) which deals with the perception, through the ear, of speech sounds.
Voiced and Voiceless Sound
Acoustic phonetics, which deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air. When the vocal cords are spread apart, air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.
Place of Articulation
Dental: Where the tip or blade of the tongue comes into contact with the upper teeth, as in the pronunciation of the initial sounds in the words "tat" and "then", represented by the symbols /θ/ and /ð/. Alveolar: Where the tip or blade of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge, which is directly behind the upper teeth.
Manner of Articulation
In other words, this mode of articulation involves two organs coming close together so that the air stream is allowed to escape with friction (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:319). However, when the velum is lowered and the air stream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce [m], [n] and [ŋ].
Phonetics Transcription
- Transcription of English Vowels and Consonants
One can say that the NP, such as the man, consists of an article "the" and a noun "man". So the phrase "the snake" is a construction consisting of snake as head and as modifier.
Phonology
In addition, Todd (1987:7) defines phonetics as the study of the production, transmission and reception of speech sound. Vowel is a speech sound produced without significant constriction of the air flowing through the mouth (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:584).
Phonemes
The meaning of the first sentence is exactly the same as the meaning of the second sentence. The distance between my city and Riyadh is exactly 7 miles. The name of this Almasani means factories in English.
Segments and Suprasegmantals Analysis
Morpheme
- Free Morpheme
- Bound Morpheme
Unlike the subject in sentence (1), the sword as the subject in sentence (2) is not the "doer" of the action. Furthermore, Trask stated that neurolinguistics is the study of the connections between language and the brain.
Deep and Surface Structure
In other words, the deep structure represents the meaning of the sentence; while the surface structure represents the forms used in communication. More importantly, Jacobs & Rosenbaum say that all languages contain transformations that transform deep structure into surface structure.
Symbols used in Syntactic Descriptions
The third symbol is in the form of curly braces { } indicating that only one of the elements enclosed within the curly braces should be selected. It is important to remember that although there are three ingredients within these curly brackets, only one of them can be selected at any given time.
PS Rules
We can say that both the cat and the black cat are examples of category NP. Phrase categories include the Noun Phrase (NP), Verb Phrase (VP) and Prepositional Phrase (PP), Adverb Phrase (AdvP), Adjective Phrase (AdjP); lexical categories include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and many others.
IC Analysis
Denoting components by putting them in parentheses is the most common and popular way of graphical presentation. It's the easiest way to type and write, but doesn't work very well in the larger device.
Bracketing, Labelled Bracketing and Tree Diagram
Richards & Schmidt (2002) defined that neurolinguistics is the study of the function that the brain performs in language learning and language use. This finding confirmed the left hemisphere location of language ability and led to the view that Wernicke's area is a part of the brain crucially involved in understanding speech.
Conceptual Meaning
The meaning of this word is considered as the core meaning of the word itself or can be said as the core meaning of lexical item. In other words, conceptual meaning refers to the basic meaning of a linguistic expression as well (Bussmann.
Associative Meaning
Conceptual meaning covers those basic, essential components of meaning that are conveyed by the literal use of a word (Yule, 2006:100).
Semantic Roles
The study of the relationship between language and the brain began in the mid-nineteenth century by the Frenchman Paul Broca and the German Carl Wernicke (Trask, 1999:134). Schmidt (2002:28) states, "Aphasia is the loss of the ability to use and understand language, usually caused by brain damage."
Cohesion
Discourse analysis is the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc. According to Yule's definition of discourse analysis, we can conclude that discourse analysis undoubtedly works with text and conversation. to understand their contexts.
Coherence
Neurolinguistics
It includes research into how the structure of the brain affects language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language. What they did was to study and characterize aphasia (impaired language) in people who had suffered brain damage, and then, after the sufferers died, to perform post-mortem examinations to find out which areas of the brain had been damaged.
Where is language localized in the brain?
Mastery of the standard language is the goal of formal language instruction (Bussmann. According to Richards & Schmidt, the standard language is the version of the language that has the highest status in a community or nation and is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.
The Behavioristic Hypothesis
Based on the explanation above, we can conclude that this first hypothesis traces language learning processes back to experience, imitation and selective conditioning. In short, Behaviourist psychologists claimed that language is learned through the mechanism of strengthening the conditioned association between stimulus and response.
The Nativistic Hypothesis
According to this view, children learn language because they are positively reinforced when they produce correct verbal expressions, negatively reinforced when they make mistakes (Guasti, 2002:12). As a result, they are able to produce strings of words into phrases or sentences, known as Telegraphic Speech.
The Cognition Hypothesis
The Social Constitution Hypothesis
Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to social factors, which are social class, education level and type of education, age, gender, ethnic origin, etc. From the above definitions, we can conclude that sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.
Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the empirical study of how language is used in society (Arnoff and Rees-Miller. The study of linguistic features that have social meaning for the participants of these speech communities is called "sociolinguistics" (Yule, 2006:205).
Sociolinguistics and the Sociology of Language
Similarly, Richards & Schmidt argue that microsociolinguistics involves the detailed study of interpersonal communication (speech acts, conversation analysis, speech events, and the order of utterances). The sociology of language, on the other hand, is the study of society in relation to language.
Language Variations
Furthermore, Richards & Schmidt argue that language variations refer to the differences in pronunciation, grammar, or word choice within a language. Richards & Schmidt state that lingua franca is a language used for communication between different groups of people, each speaking a different language.
Standard Language
Schmidt Standardization is the process of adapting some aspects of language use to a standard version. He focused on the study of American literature by analyzing Mark Twain's novel The Adventures of Heckleberry Finn where he found slavery to be a central theme or theme in the novel.