ISSN: 2339-076X (p); 2502-2458 (e), Volume 7, Number 1 (October 2019):1953-1957 DOI:10.15243/jdmlm.2019.071.1953
www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id 1953 Review
Causes, consequences and coping strategies of land degradation:
evidence from Ethiopia
Guta Regasa Megerssa
*, Yadeta Bekele Bekere
College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Jimma University, Ethiopia
*corresponding author: [email protected] Received 4 July 2019, Accepted 12 August 2019
Abstract: This paper aims to give emphasis on the causes and consequences of land degradation in Ethiopia. The results from different literatures indicate that the major factors that cause land degradation in Ethiopia are: clearing woodland for agriculture, repeated cultivation, removal of residuals and dungs, single cropping, extraction of wood, population growth, deforestation, soil erosion, low technology, inadequate extension services, political instability, cultivation on steep slopes, overgrazing, traditional way of cultivation, heavy wind, high intensity of rainfall, drought and landslides, absence of all-inclusive land use and lack of land use plans developed. On the other hand, the depletion of forests and vegetation, loss in water resources, reduction of livestock, enhancing the unemployment rate and out-migration, conflict between pastoralists, food insecurity, decreasing of soil fertility and arable land, reduction of agricultural productivity, increasing price of farm inputs, reduction of plants grown, depletion of aquifers, loss of biodiversity, reduction of potable water, shortages of timber, climate change and desertification are the major consequences of land degradation in Ethiopia. Afforestation, Reforestation, terracing, crop rotation, mixed cropping, irrigation schemes and traditional soil conservations are among the coping strategies that Ethiopian farmers are using. To overcome this problem, strengthening the teamwork among policy makers, GOs/NGOs, local communities, research institutes and the mass media are the key agents that must take these responsibilities.
Keywords: land degradation causes, consequences, coping strategies, Ethiopia
To cite this article: Megerssa, G.R. and Bekere, Y.B. 2019. Causes, consequences and coping strategies of land degradation: evidence from Ethiopia. J. Degrade. Min. Land Manage. 7(1): 1953-1957, DOI: 10.15243/jdmlm.
2019.071.1953.
Introduction
Land degradation is affecting the livelihoods of 1.5 billion people across the world. Moges et al. (2018) predicted that about 12 million hectares of dry lands is degraded globally. Land degradation is one indicator of poverty prevalence in most developing countries. Productivity loss, economic recession and social disturbances are the instant outcomes of land degradation. In the same fashion, Ethiopia is also one of the most strictly affected countries by land degradation as well as a high level of soil loss (FAO, 2011 and World Bank, 2012).
In Ethiopia, land degradation affects all provinces of social, economic and political life of the people (Debrie, 2018). Poverty, declining agricultural productivity and land degradation are
among the common problems affecting all people in Ethiopia (Haregeweyn et al., 2015). Currently, in Ethiopia, people are clearing forests for crop cultivation, grazing, fuel wood, fodder and construction of houses (Gedefaw and Soromessa, 2015). The country is facing serious land degradation due to both natural and human activities (Urgessa, 2016).
Due to the fact that more than 85% of the Ethiopian economy is dependent on agriculture, land degradation is seriously affecting the productivity of the economy. In Ethiopia, land degradation is also the causal agent for food insecurity, poverty and low agricultural productivity (Million and Belay, 2007). The lowest predicted annual cost of land degradation goes from two to three per cent of the agricultural GDP
Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 1954 of the country (FAO, 2010). The effect of land
degradation is also mirrored on various environmental hazards such as drought and desertification (Shamore, 2015).
Moreover, rural farmers want to take in the cruelty and the related yield loss of land degradation before effectively applying any soil and water conservation practices (Tesfa and Mekuria, 2014). The final outcome of land degradation on the people’s livelihoods may be unpremeditated for the need for endurance (Teshome et al., 2016). To avoid land degradation practices in Ethiopia, different strategies that might be applied to land conservation and practices are not carrying out where they are highly demanded (Tesfaye et al., 2014). Therefore, this review paper aims at understanding the causes, consequences and coping strategies of land degradation in Ethiopia is much necessitated.
In Ethiopia, more than a few studies apportioned with land degradation at the countrywide level (FAO, 2003). This problem is highly displayed in the upland parts of the nation.
Consequently, the country is losing 1.5-2 billion tons of top soil annually by soil erosion. If this soil is conserved, it could have produced more than 1 million tons of grain (Taddese, 2001). Generally, soil erosion is one of the causes of land degradation that highly threatens the survival of life in Ethiopia (Zelealem, 2007).
Causes of Land Degradation in Ethiopia According to Birhanu (2014) land degradation in Ethiopia is because of the factors; expansion of agriculture, repeated cultivation, removal of residuals and dungs, single cropping rather than intercropping, extraction of wood, expansion of infrastructure, rainfall variability, increasing rate of population growth, deforestation activities, soil and water erosion, loss of biodiversity, low technology, inadequate extension services, political unrest and civil wars, lack of awareness and consciousness.
Berry (2003) pointed out that poor infrastructure, poor markets, low levels of technology, low levels of investment in agriculture, sensible growth in population and dissipating woodland for agricultural activities are the factors that contribute to land degradation in Ethiopia.
Farming on steep slopes, population growth, defrayal of vegetation, rugged topographical features, rising demand for fire woods and overgrazing are also other factors that enhance land degradation in Ethiopia (Wubie, 2015). Tilahun and Eylachew (2002) found out that unscientific way of cultivation, heavy wind and rainfall are that factors that accelerate the erosion of the top soil
and causes for land degradation in Ethiopia. Heavy rainfall, drought and landslides, lack of all- inclusive land use and administration policies and lack of land use plans developed are the factors that contribute to land degradation in the country (Gedefaw and Soromessa, 2015). Saguye (2017) found out that practicing deforestation activities and defrayal of vegetation, overgrazing, constant and precipitous slope cultivation are the human activities that enhance land degradation in Ethiopia. Generally, the above points are the foremost and fundamental factors that contribute to land degradation that leads to low productivity, food insecurity and finally turning into a state of poverty in Ethiopia.
Consequences of Land Degradation in Ethiopia
The effect of land degradation on the natural environment is due to the depletion of forests (Birhanu, 2014). Land degradation also leads to the diminution of livestock in both quantity and quality so that the living standard of the rural people as a whole is affected by any change in the livestock sector in Ethiopia. Land degradation in Ethiopia also results in enhancing the unemployment rate and out-migration; where there is low agricultural and livestock production. Insufficient land for cultivation leads to a reduction of farm size that creates disguised unemployment. Ethiopia is rankly first among other Africa countries to onlooker the power of land degradation that pushes people out of their home. The conflict between pastoralists occurred as the result of land degradation and continues up to date in Ethiopia.
Hurni (1988) explained that land degradation causes for food malnutrition i.e., crop production is reduced by ten to twenty per cent because of the depletion of forest products and as the result food insecurity is its final outcome. Nowadays, food security is highly affected by land degradation in Ethiopia. Land degradation in the form of soil erosion is negatively affecting the performance of agricultural sectors as the overall economy and accordingly, the livelihood of the people is threaten by land degradation so that people are suffering from food shortages and exposed for severe famine (Amsalu, 2006; Habtamu, 2006). Ethiopia is losing 30, 000 hectares of land and more than 2 million hectares have severely damaged on an annual basis due to land degradation (World Bank, 2007b).
The result of Lakew et al. (2000) indicates that the annual crop productivity is losing 0.1-2%
of total production for the country due to soil erosion which is estimated to 20-100 per hectare annually especially in highlands of Ethiopia.
Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 1955 Hannes (2012) also argued that increasing
migration, decreasing in soil fertility and arable land, increasing migration, inadequate food, reduction of economy, decreasing agricultural productivity and increasing price of farming inputs are the results of land degradation in Ethiopia. The result of Kahsay (2004) reveals that land degradation is threatening the economy at the nation level and survival of the people at an individual level that has been acknowledged as a serious problem in Ethiopia.
According to Yohannes (2016), the occupation of the rural people is exceedingly reliant on the livestock production but the productivity of the livestock is highly affected by land degradation. Debrie (2018) found out that the means of support of the rural community is utterly affected by the decline of crops and reduction of due to land degradation and he also identified that high population pressure, topographic nature and frequent farming are the agents for accelerating land degradation in Ethiopia.
The results of Gashaw et al. (2014) indicates that reduction of plants grown, decreasing volumes of surface water, loss of biodiversity, depletion of aquifers and reduction of potable water are the results of land degradation. The reduction of soil depth, no longer able to support vegetative cover and erosion of highland soils are also the results of land degradation in Ethiopia (Mesene, 2017). The shortage of food is the result of annual reduction of grain production by 550, 000 tones because of burning dung for the purpose of fuel as a replacement for using it as an organic fertilizer (Mekuria, 2005). Land degradation has also an effect on biodiversity, ecosystem services, soil erosion and climate change in Ethiopia (Gedefaw and Soromessa, 2015). In another hand, shortages of firewood, shortages of timber, reduction of forest products, climate change, loss of biodiversity and desertification are the consequences of land degradation in Ethiopia (Shamore, 2015).
Coping Strategies of Land Degradations in Ethiopia
Some of literatures point out that the very common and severe problems in Ethiopia are soil erosion, deforestation activities and land degradation. To reduce these problems many strategies have been formulated by different stakeholders to make afforestation and conservation practices on farms and community lands. For example, Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture has made effort to apply for community tree planting programs and agroforestry practices hence such kind of programs
are identified as the most important solution to overcome the problem of our farmers who are first affected by land degradation. Thus, in referring to different literatures the tools that have been used to prevent land degradation in Ethiopia are discussed as the following findings.
Land degradation can be reduced by maximizing vegetation cover and this practice is very important to avoid removal of soil nutrients, removal of plants so that the speed and volumes of water flow over the soil are reduced. Another principle is terracing lands, land bunds, tree crops, vegetation trips, perennial crops, intercropping and reducing tillage practices are also preferred to reduce land degradation (Coxhead and Ygard, 2008). UNCCD (2004) argued that one method of combating land degradation and desertification is by using forest and tree cover through reducing water erosion, reducing wind erosion and sustaining nutrient cycling in soils and therefore, developing forest ecosystems and agroforestry practices can contribute to reduction of poverty and rural farmers vulnerable to the negative effect of land degradation.
In Ethiopia, there are many indigenous knowledge and land degradation practices, particularly in soil conservations. Konso people are among the Ethiopian society known by their traditional soil conservation practices for which they were registered by UNESCO. Yirdawa et al.
(2017) pointed out that terracing land, contour ploughing land; crop rotation, field boundaries and mixed cropping are the mechanism used to reduce land degradation in Konso people in Ethiopia.
Conclusion and Future Directions
Majority of Ethiopian economy is dependent on agriculture. Conversely, the output of the economy is utterly gripped by land degradation. Ethiopia is also one of the east African countries most sternly affected by land degradation and a high level of soil erosion does. The livelihoods of people in dry land across the Ethiopian regions are seriously affected by land degradation. Poverty, reduction of agricultural production and land degradation are problems in Ethiopia. Due to natural and human activities, Ethiopia is facing serious land degradation.
The results from different literatures indicate that the major factors that cause land degradation in Ethiopia are: expansion of agriculture, repeated cultivation, removal of residuals and dungs, single cropping rather than intercropping, extraction of wood, expansion of infrastructure, rainfall variability, increasing rate of population growth, deforestation activities, soil and water erosion,
Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 1956 forfeiture of biodiversity, low technology,
inadequate extension services, political unrest and civil wars, lack of awareness and consciousness, poor infrastructure and markets, inadequate investment in agriculture and forest management, cultivating on steep slopes, woodland glade for agriculture, dissipating of vegetation, rugged topographical features, overgrazing and higher demand for fire woods, unscientific way of cultivation, heavy wind and rainfall, high intensity of rainfall, drought and landslides, absence of all- inclusive land use and administration policies, and lack of land use plans developed and overgrazing are the major factors that contribute to land degradation in Ethiopia.
The depletion of forests and vegetation, loss in water resources, decreasing livestock, enhancing the unemployment rate and out- migration, conflict between pastoralists, shortage of food malnutrition, decreasing in soil fertility and arable land, reduction of agricultural productivity, increasing price of farming inputs, reduction of plants, decreasing volumes of water surface, depletion of aquifers, loss of biodiversity, and reduction of potable water, shortages of timber, reduction of forest products, loss of biodiversity, climate change and desertification are the consequences of land degradation in Ethiopia. To overcome the problem of land degradation the following actions may be taken:
Provision of training for extension capacity to improve sustainable land management practices at grass-root level.
An afforestation activity is a key solution where there is severe land degradation.
Using family planning where there is high population pressure especially in rural areas.
Empowering the participation of local farmers in local land degradation issues and their remedial measures on conferences, workshops and seminars.
Using rehabilitation degraded land and encouraging local community as they should be active participants in sustainability.
Absolutely implementing soil and water conservation practices.
Enhancing modern technological advancement on land management practices to improve agricultural production activities.
Implementing both biological and physical measures to minimize soil loss.
Ensuring community participation in designing rehabilitation measures.
Finally, strengthening the teamwork among policy makers, GOs/NGOs, research institutes and the mass media.
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