One fruitful, if underexplored, application lies in the analysis of compositional data to study technical and social boundaries. Using this approach allows us to investigate sources of variation in the composition of Kalinga ceramics. Longacre launched the Kalinga Ethnoarchaeological Project in 1973 in the Pasil River Valley (Kalinga Province) of the northern Philippines (Fig. 2). ^\\||L \ ?J. >) ?^-^&N.
Later research made comparisons between the morphology of Kalinga pottery made in the Pasil River Valley and the morphology of pottery made outside its boundaries (Longacre, 1991; Stark, 1999). The Pasil River Valley is a tributary of the Chico River, one of the larger drainage systems in the northern Philippines. In the Pasil River Valley, pottery production is an economic strategy to meet the economic needs of households (Stark, 1995).
These technological changes in the Dalupa production system were accompanied by an expansion of the ceramic distribution system (Stark. Dangtalan affiliations with villages in the western half of the river valley, or Upper Pasil (Fig. 2), while Dalupa people in line are with Material reflections of these boundaries are evident in the pottery produced by Dalupa and Dangtalan women.
Non-potters (daughters, sisters, other relatives and sometimes friends) may participate in some stages of the firing process, but few men participate in any stage of the pottery process.
COMPOSITIONAL RESEARCH
Interviews with all the potters whose work was collected provide a better idea of the range of clay sources represented in the collection. Inspection of the sample coordinates, viewed relative to the first two principal components (which comprise approximately 55% of the variation), revealed a tendency for the Dalupa pottery to deviate from the Dangtalan pottery. Furthermore, a small number of Dangtalan specimens appeared to be compositionally different from most other pottery from that village.
Aspects of this complexity are visible in the thin sections of the pottery clay and pottery. The main difference between the reported composition of the tuff rocks from Awiden Mesa and the Dalupa and Dangtalan clays lies in the clay mineral content. These differences are visible in plots of the relative abundances of mineral grains and rock fragments (normalized relative to the total number of grains counted for each sample).
A minority of Dangtalan clay samples and two of the Dangtalan clay samples differ from all others. Although most of the samples consist of meat/vegetable containers, the samples of Dalupa water jars were ordered from special clay sources as well. Most of the Dangtalan samples separate from the Dalupa samples into two distinct clusters, as suggested by main compo.
No refinement of the data pattern through removal of outliers or group reallocation has taken place. The plot of the data relating to the first two principal components (Fig. 6) shows the data sets by village (Dalupa [DU] vs. The ellipse for the Dangtalan pottery is calculated for pottery first obtained in 1976, which occupies a relatively compact area of the plot and differs from Dalupa pottery.
The monsters referred to as the Dangtalan variant diverge towards the lower right corner of the plot. The trend shown in the plot for the chemical separation of the Dalupa and Dangtalan pottery reflects the influence of the rare earth elements (iron, scandium, titanium) on the first principal component. The bivariate plot of chromium and tantalum (Fig. 8) is used here because it also shows the divergence of the Dangtalan variant samples.
However, the Dangtalan clay which is more similar to the Dalupa clay is also similar to most of the Dangtalan pottery. Similarly, the mineralogical composition of Dalupa clay samples is very close to the mineralogy of the Dalupa pottery.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Thus, we conclude that compositional sampling reflects local geological differences in the raw materials and products of these two Kalinga villages. In addition, some previous characterization studies using prehistoric ceramics from the American Southwest (eg Bishop et al, 1988; Harry, . . 1997; Triadan, 1997; Zede?o, 1994) have found interregional differences in chemical composition. In the case of Kalinga, are there compositional differences in the products of two pottery villages located only 2 km apart? even in a region of complex geological diversity.
The use of petrographic and chemical approaches in the Kalinga study wool supports the possibility that archaeological pottery characterization studies can achieve higher degrees of spatial resolution than archaeologists generally attempt. The association of pottery with clay sources, as in the Kalinga case of clays having the textural properties of tempered pottery, provides greater certainty of site-specific attribution in provenance research using archaeological pottery. Our study identified differences in paste composition position between Dalupa and Dangtalan clays and ceramics.
Thus, the results of our compositional analysis parallel previous research that has examined village-based differences in vessel morphology and decoration. A methodological objective of our study was to assess the compatibility between ceramic samples and raw material samples. Compositional differences in Dangtalan samples from 1976 and 1988 raise the question of whether this discrepancy reflects a relationship between paste homogeneity and changing modes of production organization.
Many previous studies (see review in Kvamme .. et al, 1996) suggest that production intensity is reflected in various forms of product standardization, or "the relative degree of homogeneity or reduction of variability in pottery characteristics or [in] process of achieving that relative homogeneity" (Rice, 1991, p. 268). Future research should test the hypothesis that the heterogeneous chemical pattern in the 1988 sample reflects a decline in the rate of production of Dangtalan pottery from 1976 to 1988. ethnoarchaeological and experimental have documented a number of factors that influence the relationship between the composition of raw materials and.
In the Pasil case, we benefit from using an approach that not only examines boundaries through stylistic studies, but also examines other aspects of the technological sequence of pottery production. Few ceramic studies examine compositional variability in raw materials and finished products in an ethnographic setting. Long-term projects such as the Kalinga Ethnoarchaeological Project demonstrate the value of longitudinal ethnoarchaeological research.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Clearly, ethnoarchaeological approaches offer an analytical luxury not afforded to those who work only with archaeological ceramics. Nevertheless, this analysis also has theoretical and methodological importance for such archaeological studies, and some methods are. Although demanding, the incorporation of compositional analysis, including both petrography and chemical, makes social boundaries more visible and provides better comparative data for archaeologists, who benefit from combining both approaches in their analysis.
Even the longest ethnoarchaeological studies of ceramic systems cannot correspond to archaeological time, but they allow archaeologists to monitor different scales of change in technological systems and track changes in distribution networks to build better models. It is hoped that this project will continue to provide new information. study paths for new generations of researchers in the coming decades. pots; thanks to Jim Bayman, Jim Skibo and Allison Towner for their support in drilling pots. We are grateful to Meredith Aronson and Jim Skibo for their collaboration on previous Kalinga clay research, which provided the impetus for this study, and to Michael Graves, who originally suggested using INAA techniques.
Thanks to Hector Neff and Michael Glascock for the use of the MURR facilities in 1994–95 when the NIST reactor was under modification, to Lambertus van Zelst for his support of our research, to David Killick for the use of his photomicrographic equipment , to William Doelle and the Center for Desert Archeology for access to equipment for petrographic analyses, and to Joe Singer. We also thank Carol Kramer, Michael Schiffer, Nicholas David, Michael Graves, and two anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of this.
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