Volume 10, Number 4 (July 2023):4811-4821, doi:10.15243/jdmlm.2023.104.4811 ISSN: 2339-076X (p); 2502-2458 (e), www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id
Open Access 4811 Review
Coal mining reclamation as an environmental recovery effort: a review
Priyaji Agung Pambudi1, Suyud Warno Utomo1*, Soemarno Witoro Soelarno1, Noverita Dian Takarina2
1 School of Environmental Science, Universitas Indonesia, Jl. Salemba Raya No. 4, Central Jakarta 10430, Indonesia
2 Biology Department, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia
*corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract Article history:
Received 19 November 2022 Accepted 10 April 2023 Published 1 July 2023
The exploitation of natural resources remains a common practice in many countries to stimulate economic growth, and coal is the most commonly exploited resource. However, the mining process often causes environmental disturbance. Therefore, this research was conducted to analyze the ideal implementation of coal mine reclamation in Indonesia. In the post-mining area, the land is often arid, with voids that are prone to flood and erosion.
The reclamation of this area is carried out by returning topsoil, adding organic material, and planting cover crops and fast-growing species. When the topographical conditions have steep slopes, scrap engineering is often added to hills up to a maximum height of 8 meters, trimming the slope with a maximum remaining slope of 35 degrees and making drainage channels with a width of more than 3 meters, a depth of more than 2 meters, and an edge slope of 2-5 percent. Approximately 70.59% of reclamation programs in Indonesia are aimed at reforesting mining areas into secondary forests because they were previously a forest ecosystem. The types of reclamation that had been carried out but were still uncommon included aquaculture, urban forests, parks playground, sports park, cattle farms, and fauna conservation ecotourism. A new approach to reclamation, such as eco- habitat, is important to obtain optimal social, economic, and ecological benefits. This approach involves optimizing sources of livelihood based on area rezoning according to the level of interference, revegetation of plants involving the community, and revitalization of sources of community livelihood, specifically environmental restoration with plant species as sources of food, nutrition, minerals, income, and non-timber forest products.
Therefore, the reclamation program should be carried out through a collaborative partnership between companies, local communities, academics, technical ministries, and the media.
Keywords:
coal mine ecosystems local communities reclamation vegetation
To cite this article: Pambudi, P.A., Utomo, S.W., Soelarno, S.W. and Takarina, N.D. 2023. Coal mining reclamation as an environmental recovery effort: a review. Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 10(4):4811-4821, doi:10.15243/jdmlm.2023.104.4811.
Introduction
Post-mining land in coal mining areas on the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan has always attracted attention. Several locations in these areas continue to be of great concern due to the large expanses of dry, vegetation-free land and abandoned voids.
Furthermore, the landscape of the area shows the
extent of previous exploitation and illustrates the amount of exploited coal (Siqueira-Gay et al., 2020).
In many countries, mining exploitation, including coal, is still mostly carried out in forest areas and natural ecosystems (Rustiadi et al., 2018; Turubanova et al., 2018; Martins-Oliveira et al., 2021; Takam et al., 2021; Zhang, L. et al., 2022). Massive exploitation of coal in forest areas can change the shape, structure, and
Open Access 4812 characteristics of an ecosystem (Mushia et al., 2016).
Various types of organisms can also become victims of these events, causing a decrease in biodiversity (Woodbury et al., 2020). According to Pambudi et al.
(2023), certain organisms lack good mobility;
therefore, some will lose their habitat, which may lead to death (Pambudi et al., 2023).
The systematic death and extinction of organisms in mining areas can occur during the preparation, exploitation, and post-mining stages (Kivinen, 2017).
In the preparation stage, natural ecosystems are converted into built ecosystems through the land- clearing process (Mensah et al., 2015). This is followed by the exploitation stage, where the soil is dredged to get coal at a certain depth (Rahimi et al., 2023). During this process, the subsoil will be moved to a new location, thereby causing the death of microorganisms, specifically the soil mesofauna (Li et al., 2023). The longer the exploitation process, the greater the interruption of the environment (Unanaonwi and Amonum, 2017). At the post-mining stage, changes in ecosystem conditions become a hindrance to the survival of various organisms (Huang et al., 2023; Long et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2023), resulting in a barren and lifeless landscape. To address this condition, a specific approach to restore the ecosystem to its original condition or state is necessary (Behera and Sahu, 2023; Miguel et al., 2023; Monika et al., 2023; Xiao et al., 2023). Therefore, the government established a post-mining land reclamation policy through Government Regulation no. 78 of 2010 concerning reclamation and post- mining. This regulation is stated in Article 29, paragraph 1, which requires holders of Mining Business Permits (IUP) and Special Mining Business Permits (IUPK) to provide reclamation and post- mining guarantees. Meanwhile, paragraph 2 as referred to in paragraph 1, consists of reclamation guarantees for the exploration stage and the production operation stage.
Reclamation, also referred to as restoration, aims to restore biophysical conditions, maintain land, and enhance ecosystem service functions (Jambhulkar and Kumar, 2019). Therefore, it is carried out early as an integral part of mining activities without waiting for exploitation to be completed because restoration requires a long time both in planning and implementing (Hobbs et al., 2011). Restoration is not only about the aspects of restoring vegetation cover but also includes how to restore the ecological function of the area and provide livelihoods for local communities in line with socio-cultural developments in the area (Harvey et al., 2017).
Zoning is required to establish a restoration strategy as it plays an important role in mapping the biophysical/ecological, social, and economic conditions of the surrounding community (Beckett and Keeling, 2019). Furthermore, it is the main factor that needs to be determined and is responsible for the success or failure of the restoration process (Hobbs et
al., 2011). The next stage is revegetation or replanting to restore ecological conditions. At this stage, the cultivated plants require local or non-invasive alien species with excellent ecological values, such as hydrological functions and CO2 sequestration, as well as economic value (Martínez-Moreno et al., 2022;
Pambudi et al., 2023). This condition should be considered due to the significant influence of the selection of vegetation types to be planted on environmental conditions both socially, economically, and ecologically (Singh and Singh, 2016). This is followed by revitalization and is carried out to ensure that the post-mining restoration process provides a source of livelihood for the surrounding communities (Jiayin et al., 2020).
Reclamation can be achieved when the zoning and revegetation processes are successfully carried out in line with the appropriate rules, as stated in the previous section. Therefore, this study analyzed coal mine reclamation mainly in the process of environmental restoration in Indragiri Hulu Riau, Indonesia. This location was selected because it often experiences floods in almost every rainy season between October and March each year (Tamrin et al., 2018). Flood events became obstacles to mining operations and disturbed the comfort of local communities. It also brought organic material in the form of soil and mud that further worsened road conditions and triggered fatigue transportation accidents due to slippery roads, thereby causing the siltation of rivers and irrigation canals.
Biophysical Engineering in the Coal Mine Reclamation Process
The condition of coal mines has experienced disturbances ranging from low to high levels, depending on mining procedures (Tampubolon et al., 2021). In Indonesia, the mining process is carried out mostly in an open pit (Pratiwi et al., 2021); therefore, the environmental impact is greater than any particular mine above (Jiayin et al., 2020). The degree of environmental disturbance is directly proportional to the complexity of the restoration being carried out (Woodbury et al., 2020). This makes the commitment to the environment throughout the mining process an important factor that cannot be neglected. When the level of disturbance is not extremely bad, the land area can still be repaired according to its designation and function (Pambudi et al., 2022). However, the environmental disturbances, both low and high levels due to coal mining still need to be fixed and restored through biophysical engineering (Feng et al., 2018).
Biophysical engineering is required to organize the landscape and restore topsoil, plant cover crops, and fast-growing species (Peng et al., 2017). It also functions as a basis for improving the physical condition of the environment, which becomes a habitat for cover crops and fast-growing species (Sudarmadji and Hartati, 2016). The strategic position of
Open Access 4813 biophysical engineering becomes the main factor that
determines the success of the restoration; therefore, the process should be carried out with care and
thoroughness. Table 1 shows the biophysical engineering processes in various coal mines in several countries.
Table 1. Coal mining biophysical engineering.
Site Type of mining Biophysical engineering Results References East
Kalimantan, Indonesia
Surface mining with low soil organic matter
Spread the topsoil to a depth of 10 cm on land reclamation wide 5 ha, then apply NPK fertilizer, organic fertilizer, and sawdust
Found 68 species of plants, 46 woody plants, and 22 shrubs at the age of reclamation 9 years
Woodbury et al. (2020)
Datong, Shanxi, China
Open pit mining hilly topography with serious soil erosion
slope modification of tilt 50- 60o to 35o and cut the hill to a maximum of 8 meters, makeditch3 meters wide with 2-5% edge slope and depth 2 meters, make a planting hole measuring 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5 meters and a hole distance of 2 meters then plant fast-growing species at that point while spreading grass seeds thoroughly
Become a green mountain and eco- tourism destination as well as a natural laboratory
Jiayin et al.
(2020)
Tibetan Alpine, China
An open pit in the highlands with grassy sloping topography
Collects mine waste sludge at one point and compacts it into a mound periodically and evenly to provide permafrost and organic fertilizer. Spread the grass seed 300 kg/ha and cover it with a net made of natural fibers
Land cover increased 57.3%, tall grass each 40.6 cm, and a biomass of 71 kg/m2 at 5 years after reclamation
Li et al.
(2019)
South Kalimantan, Indonesia
Surface mining
with hilly
topography found contamination of heavy metals such as Pb, Hg, and Cd at various
concentrations. The soil fertility was very low soil and there was a void, where the water appeared murky and brownish-gray.
Laying topsoil on a relatively flat surface of the former mine gives compost and manure in the reclamation area as well as making drainage channels to drain runoff water
A total of 73.54% of the reclaimed land was suitable for cultivating rainfed vegetables and secondary crops
Sukarman and Gani (2020)
Table 1 shows that biophysical engineering plays a crucial role in the coal mine reclamation process in both Indonesia and China. The process involves several similarities, such as landscaping, restoring topsoil, and sowing seeds. By examining the four examples of reclamation, knowledge can be acquired from the commitment of the company towards high reclamation efforts. Meanwhile, when the effort is high, the biophysical constraints can be overcome through the implementation of technology. In principle, the reclamation process should be (1) technologically applicable, (2) economically feasible,
(3) socially acceptable to local communities, and (4) environmentally sustainable. Biophysical engineering plays a significant role in creating a living space for other organisms, and it should be carried out with careful consideration to achieve a high success rate.
This is because high success can support the fairy life of organisms and enables the restoration of a region according to its designation purposes, such as a natural forest, production forest, agricultural land, or a tourism destination.
Experience from the 4 locations shows that, in principle, coal mine restoration can be achieved
Open Access 4814 through 4 stages. First, when an open pit mine is
located in an area with hilly topography and steep slopes, modification is required to lower the hills and the slope level to a value not greater than 30o. The slopes are too steep, and the hills with lost land cover are at high risk of experiencing landslides and causing sediment accumulation in water bodies when slope and topography engineering is not carried out (Ramadan et al., 2020). Second, returning topsoil to the restoration site is essential. Prayogo and Ihsan (2018) emphasized that topsoil stored during the opening of the mine is microbiological suitable for the local location and can easily be applied to support livelihoods in the restoration process. This is in contrast to bringing humus from another place, which may not have the appropriate microbiological conditions that correspond to the characteristics of the local ecosystem. Third, when there is low or very low fertility in the existing conditions, organic and inorganic fertilizers should be added after the topsoil has been removed to increase the potential for successful restoration (Iskandar et al., 2022). Fourth, cover crop planting can be carried out in many ways and should be adapted to local conditions. For example, when dealing with wide areas, cover crop seeds can be spread using drones. Meanwhile, when reclaiming narrow lands, planting holes can be spaced and added with massive stocking using a hydroseeder for optimal results. These four stages should be carried out sequentially to increase the success rate. Supandi et al. (2023) stated that cover crops should have high diversity to maximize their potential benefits for protecting the soil surface.
Implementation of Coal Mine Reclamation in Indonesia
The implementation of the reclamation for former coal mining land is often time ineffective due to several factors, including (1) weak community participation, (2) applied technology errors, (3) landscaping errors, and (4) errors in selecting pioneer plants (Kristant et al., 2019; Thalib et al., 2020; Sriningsih et al., 2022).
However, with the continuous development of science and technology, the percentage of the success rate of mine reclamation can be improved over time (Lestari et al., 2019). The government institutions that oversee coal mining, namely the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (ESDM), are also developing their monitoring and assessment methods to ensure successful reclamation (Soelarno, 2022). Table 2 shows the reclamation program of various companies' coal mines owned by the government or private organizations in Indonesia. Table 2 shows that the coal mining company in Indonesia are committed to reclamation by implementing various programs according to the needs, vision, and mission of the company. Based on search results, the most popular reclamation program (70.59%) involves converting the area into a secondary forest. This approach is
appropriate because mining concession is often located in a forest area, and reclamation involves returning the area to its natural state. However, the process of returning forest functions is time-consuming and requires a succession process. Qu et al. (2023) argued that the process of succession in ex-mining ecosystems is challenging. This is because the accumulation of certain chemical elements inhibits the natural microbial community from producing enzymes that play an important role in the association between plant-soil feedback (PSF), which forms a community interaction in the local ecosystem. Nugroho et al.
(2022) confirmed the importance of understanding soil characteristics in determining the reclamation strategy, especially regarding soil structure and reservoir water.
This is because the relationship significantly determines the types of plants that can thrive and provide the function of land cover and production of organic material as a supply of natural nutrients. These studies highlight that soil chemistry is the fulcrum of the reclamation program. Therefore, the reclamation of coal mines in Indonesia and other countries always starts from the land arrangement process and biophysical engineering, as illustrated in Table 1.
Biophysical engineering should be carried out with an extra level of caution due to the disturbed condition of the ex-mining area. The most common disorder is the loss of soil permeability due to the removal of topsoil by mining operational vehicles.
This leads to an increase in surface runoff and a decreased ability of the soil to absorb water, which can result in flooding and sedimentation. According to Mulyadi and Makhrawie (2023), material transfer and storage processes from the mine site can increase surface runoff as well as the risk of flooding and sedimentation due to the failure of the soil layer to absorb water. This situation is exacerbated by the loss of land cover, which reduces the soil binding power.
Therefore, during hot weather, the soil becomes extremely dry and is susceptible to being blown away by the wind. However, during rainfall, the soil is highly vulnerable to erosion and can be easily carried away by surface currents. Veldkamp et al. (2023) found that the land cover type strongly influences the risk of erosion and flooding, with agroforestry land cover having a p-value >0.03, while grassland has a p- value >0.01.
As shown in Table 2, the reclamation process aimed at creating a secondary forest is appropriated.
This is because the secondary forest has a variety of plant species that can reduce surface runoff, lower the risk of erosion, and increase the absorption of water into the soil. Li et al. (2023) found that the plant community can produce biologically active carbon (BAC) sourced from litter and decomposed by decomposers. According to Li et al. (2023), homogeneous plant species can produce 59.09-75.53%
organic elements to BAC, whereas if heterogeneous, then more optimal results reach 76.35%. Among various options, cattle dung is the best due to its ability
Open Access 4815 to support diverse mushroom growth and attract dung
beetles, which contribute to increasing operational taxonomic unit (OTU). However, the rate of increase in OTU is strongly influenced by time and the history of biodiversity that has existed in that location.
Similarly, Villa et al. (2023) stated that soil fertility is directly proportional to the diversity of flora and fauna communities as well as phylogenic diversity but inversely proportional to phylogenic grouping.
According to Villa et al. (2023), flora diversity fauna, which is directly proportional to time, can be assessed as increasing the process at certain times, such as the 5th, 10th, 15th year, etc. Since natural processes are very linear with time, the reclamation process requires human intervention, including the use of technology.
Therefore, the reclamation program should emphasize the restoration of environmental functions, as illustrated in Table 2.
Table 2. Coal Mining Reclamation Program in Indonesia.
No Mining site Wide
reclamation (ha)
Form of reclamation programs
References 1 Malinau Regency, North
Kalimantan 50.25 Making aquaculture ponds and
secondary forest
Christian et al.
(2023) 2 Tanah Bumbu, South
Kalimantan 24.1 Plantation forest Supandi et al.
(2023) 3 Berau, East Kalimantan 244.76 Secondary forest and
plantation forest
Hartati and Sudarmadji (2022) 4 South Barito, Central
Kalimantan 6.66 Secondary forest Kholik et al. (2022)
5 North Bangalore,
Bangalore 531.48
Orchards 57.54 ha, sports parks 37.42 ha, playgrounds 154.23 ha,
2.5 ha pond, 3.5 ha void, and final pit 35 ha
Setiawan et al.
(2022)
6 East Kalimantan 300 Plantation Amanah and
Yunanto (2021) 7 Bontang, East
Kalimantan 38,3 Secondary forest Hapsari et al.
(2020)
8 Berau, East Kalimantan 196 Cattle farm Yunanto et al.
(2020) 9 Tanjung Enim, Muara
Enim, South Sumatera 50 Urban forests and ecotourism destinations
Andriani and Nurini (2019) 10 Binungan, East
Kalimantan 10 Secondary forest Buchori et al.
(2018) 11 Sangata, East
Kalimantan 230 Secondary forest and
plantation forest
Komara et al.
(2018) 12 Banjar, South
Kalimantan 52 Secondary forest Putri et al. (2017)
13 Satui Mine Project,
South Kalimantan 48.2 Secondary forest Novianti et al.
(2017)
14 Central Kalimantan 1,455.52
Agricultural land for food crops, production forests, secondary forests, bird and reptile conservation areas
Sudarmadji and Hartati (2016)
15 Tanjung Redeb, Berau,
East Kalimantan 6,005.15 Secondary forest and plantation forest
Wulandari et al.
(2016) 16 Sawahlunto, West
Sumatera 5.2 Production forest Azim et al. (2014)
17 Sangata, East Kutai, East
Kalimantan 10,876.54 Production forest, secondary forest, agricultural, fish ponds
Nurlaela et al.
(2014) Returning mined areas to their original forest state is
not always necessary, specifically when previously used as a livelihood support area. For example, when an area was formerly used for community plantation land mining and, in due time, the IUP has expired, the land will be returned to the community. This
reclamation is carried out to restore the function of a source of livelihood community in the form of agroforestry, forest plantations, livestock land, integration of agriculture-breeders, and fishing ponds.
The primary function of the reclamation process is to provide a source of livelihood as a producer of food
Open Access 4816 commodities and/or economic resources that can be
sold for daily necessities. However, the function of a livelihood source should be aligned with environmental quality improvement efforts. This is because a well-maintained environment can provide a comfortable and high-quality living space for the community, as proposed in this review.
Principles of Rezonation, Revegetation, and Revitalization in Mining Reclamation
The success of post-coal mining land can be achieved through three principles, namely rezonation, revegetation, and revitalization. Rezoning is defined as an effort to prepare the land by mapping the area based on the level of environmental damage (Maund et al., 2022). Meanwhile, revegetation is the planting of various plant species that are suitable for specific mining environmental conditions (Hirfan, 2016;
Bytebier et al., 2022). This indicates that not all types of plants can grow and develop properly in these conditions because each plant has a suitability for microclimate conditions (Schmied et al., 2023).
Finally, revitalization focuses on empowering local communities who previously lacked access and the ability to manage the area by incorporating them into the revegetation process (Su et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2023; Wei et al., 2023). This mechanism provides ecological and economic benefits that can support the livelihoods of local communities (Pambudi and Utomo, 2019).
The provision of energy from the environment for the local community is categorized into two forms, namely ecology or environmental services and economics or income for the community (Dubo et al., 2023; Tianjiao et al., 2023). To achieve optimum ecological and economic benefits, proper rezoning should be carried out (Gonzalez, 2023). Generally, rezoning is determined based on the number of years since the mining process was carried out (Zhang et al., 2020). The coal mines are categorized into three zones based on the age of the mine, which include less than 5 years, between 5 to 10 years, and more than 10 years (Villa et al., 2023). Each category has different physical and chemical components (Sahoo et al., 2023). Meanwhile, the chemical components of soil in ex-mining areas that have a longer life tend to be more stable (Lestari et al., 2019).
After the rezonation process, the next stage is revegetation or replanting, where the principle of succession should be prioritized. The principle of secondary succession is more appropriate because, in the former mining area, there are still several types of tolerant organisms, both animals and plants (Alarcón- Aguirre et al., 2023). Revegetation efforts by adopting the principle of secondary succession can be optimized through human intervention (Vogt, 2021; Shen et al., 2022). Humans can select species that meet the criteria for adaptation, growth, tolerance of ex-mining environmental conditions, native or non-invasive
foreign species, as well as ecological and economical value, with the potential of providing social benefits such as employment (Pambudi et al., 2023). Plants that meet these criteria can be selected for revegetation to provide benefits for the environment, economy, and society.
Revitalization is needed to provide access and strength for local communities to meet their daily needs (Vogt, 2021). This process is an essential component to restore the environment, including the reclamation of ex-coal mining land (Hayes, 2015).
Revitalization should be prioritized because the lack of local communities’ involvement has been identified as a contributing factor to the failure of the reclamation of ex-mining land. The local community has a very good and in-depth understanding of the peculiarities of the existing environmental conditions (Ledford, 2012) through the local wisdom values based on complex ecology known as ethnoecology (Krutka and Li, 2013). Therefore, the local community should be involved both in the form of seeking information on ento-ecology and in the revegetation preparation process.
The existence of a community that is more intense and has direct contact with the post-mining area is a non-negotiable factor (Kivinen, 2017).
Moreover, the early involvement of the community in the reclamation process is because it fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility for the area (Kołodziej et al., 2020). The main factor that needs to be optimized is planting local species that have ecological and economic values (Karuniasa and Pambudi, 2019). The benefits of these two values are very important to provide environmental protection and livelihoods for local communities (Pambudi and Utomo, 2019).
Through its implementation, the community is expected to manage ex-mining land by planting tree species and other seasonal plants, thereby transforming the land into an active and passive asset for the community (Dang et al., 2020).
Several types of potential local plants that have ecological and economic values also need to be planted in the rehabilitation area, including resin-producing plants (non-timber forest products), namely agarwood, damar, and meranti. These plants have an ecological function as a protector of the area from natural disasters such as floods, landslides, and environmental pollution, as well as an economic function as a resin producer to support the livelihoods of the local community (Pambudi et al., 2021). In terms of social functions, the sap from this plant can be processed into products for religious and customary rituals (Tan et al., 2019). In principle, plants are packaged in the form of agroforestry to maintain the ecological uniqueness of being a tropical area with high biodiversity (Pramudianto et al., 2019). The reclamation mechanism will provide benefits for environmental sustainability and livelihoods (active income) for the community to achieve the essence of post-coal mining revitalization. Table 3 provides additional information
Open Access 4817 on the mechanism and scope of rezonation,
revegetation, and revitalization, as explained in this sub-chapter. Table 3 shows the mechanisms of rezonation, revegetation, and revitalization, which primarily focus on three main aspects, namely social (involvement of local communities, food resources, source of nutrition, vitamins, minerals, and freshwater), economy (accommodation of local community livelihoods, alternative sources of income,
and continuity of productive economic centers), and the environment (the stability of life-supporting ecosystems). A new approach called “Eco-Habitat”
prioritizes these three aspects to restore environmental functions according to their designation in line with existing social conditions. Following this approach, reclamation and post-mining activities can transform ex-mining sites into productive, independent, and environmentally conscious areas.
Table 3. Rezonation, revegetation, and revitalization mechanisms.
No Indicators Activity/Scope Stakeholders
1 Rezonation a. Topography mapping b. Soil conditions mapping c. Land cover mapping
d. Distribution of water pollution mapping e. Distribution of soil contamination mapping f. Biodiversity mapping
Companies, academics, and expert practitioners
2 Revegetation a. Exploring information on the uniqueness of local plants from the community
b. Review the mapping document ecology c. Assess the existing biophysical condition d. Choose adaptive local plant species for cover
crops, fast-growing species, and trees e. Selecting local plant species 2d which have
ecological and economic values f. Setting up a nursery location g. Take care of seedlings h. Planting seeds
Companies, local communities, academics, and the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
3 Revitalization a. Identify sources of livelihood for local communities
b. Identify alternative sources of livelihood for local communities
c. Identification of food sources for local communities
d. Identify sources of nutrients, vitamins, and minerals as well as fresh water for the local community
e. Assess suitability 2a, 2b, 2c, and 2d with 3a, 3b, 3c, and 3d
f. Plant and manage local plant species and non- timber forest products (NTFP)
g. Manage crop products local plants and NTFP h. Provide added value post-harvest products to
local plants and NTFP
i. Working on the area as a productive economic center based on conservation (ecotourism)
j. Involve local communities in phase 2f, 2g, 2h, and 2i
Companies, local communities, academics, expert practitioners, UMKM, the Department of the Environment, and the Department of Industry, businessmen, and the media
Conclusion
In Indonesia, open pit mining dominates coal mining, which necessitates stripping the topsoil layer and results in mine pits that require reclamation but are difficult to achieve. Typically, mine reclamation on a sloping surface with a few hills begins by spreading
topsoil at a depth of ≥10 cm, followed by adding organic material such as compost and manure, as well as the creation of a centralized drainage channel.
Meanwhile, in another country with variation in slope, reclamation is carried out with modification of the slope to ≤35o, trimming hills to a maximum height of 8 meters, constructing drainage channels with
Open Access 4818 dimensions of 8 x 3 x 2 meters with a slope of the
drainage edge 2-5%, spreading topsoil, and adding supporting organic material such as fertilizer, palm fiber, permafrost, and latex to protect seeds from extreme weather, especially cold temperatures, and strong winds.
The reclamation program in Indonesia primarily focuses on reforesting the mining area into a secondary forest, with accounts for 70.59% of the efforts. Other forms of reclamation, including plantations, horticultural, aquaculture, cattle farm, and eco- tourism, are rare. The reclamation process should be carried out using an eco-habitat approach based on the principles of rezonation, revegetation, and revitalization (3R). The rezoning phase focuses on landscape arrangement based on the mapping of existing biophysical conditions. In the revegetation, local plants should be planted based on principles of local community involvement, academic support, and the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources. The revitalization phase focuses on environmental protection and optimizing the livelihoods of local communities through alternative food sources, nutrients, minerals, and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) by involving local communities, academicians, practitioners, SMEs, businesses, and the media.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the 2020 Doctoral International Indexed Publication Grant (PUTI) by the Directorate of Research and Community Engagement Universitas Indonesia with reference number NKB- 735/UN.2.RST/HKP.05.00/2020. The authors thank Ankiet Lelono, M.Si, for proofreading this article.
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