Dinda Aulya Rahmah 11200140000001 4A
Book Response Form
Book title: Psychology, A Self Teaching Guide
Author: Frank J. Bruno. Ph.D.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Date published: 2002 Type of book: Reference Number of pages: 289 Book code: 0471443956 Chapters
1. Chapter 1 – Introduction: The Foundation of Psychology
This chapter consists of the definition of psychology, the four goals of scientific psychology, the five founders of the classical school of psychology and their goals, the six points of view as the primary way to explain behavior, and seven fields of psychology.
2. Chapter 2 – Research Methods in Psychology: Gathering Data
This chapter consists of the point of view of gaining knowledge, the three main steps in the scientific methods, and the various gathering data in research methods used by psychology.
3. Chapter 3 – The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life?
This chapter consists of the functions of neurons and their types, the two main divisions of the nervous system, the structure of the brain and its parts, the differences between the two hemispheres of the brain, the endocrine system, and different types of glands and their functions.
4. Chapter 4 – Sensation: Studying the Getaway of Experience
This chapter consists of the difference between sensation, perception, and cognition, the three basic sensations associated with vision, the three basic sensations related to hearing, the four basic taste sensations, the four skin senses, the sense of smell, kinesthesis, and the meaning of balance.
5. Chapter 5 – Perception: Why Do Things Look the Way They Do?
This chapter consists of the Gestalt laws, aspects of perception, differences between illusion, delusion, hallucination, the principal cue for depth perception, and three kinds of extrasensory perception.
6. Chapter 6 – Learning: Understanding Acquired Behavior
This chapter consists of the basic concepts in classical conditioning, trial-and-error learning, the process of operant conditioning, the example of consciousness learning, and the memory process.
7. Chapter 7 – Motivation Why Do We Do What We Do?
This chapter consists of the concept of motivation, the principal biological drives, three general drives, the kinds of acquired motives, the unconscious motives, the self- actualization; Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the search for meaning; the importance of the will to purpose.
8. Chapter 8 – Emotions: Riding Life's Roller Coaster
This chapter consists of the definition of emotions, three aspects of all emotions, three principal theories of emotion, three stages in the general adaptation syndrome, and four basic ways to categorize conflict situations by psychologist Kurt Lewin.
9. Chapter 9 – Thinking: Exploring Mental Life
This chapter consists of the definition of thinking, three basic concepts, five essential steps for solving problems, how mental sets can present obstacles to solving problems, logical thinking and logical errors, and three criteria of creative thinking by the quality.
10. Chapter 10 – Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action This chapter consists of the definition of intelligence, nine primary mental abilities, the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale, the features of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales, the concept of an intelligence quotient (IQ), and the Interaction of heredity and environment.
11. Chapter 11 – Developmental Psychology: How Children Become Adults
This chapter consists of the definition of developmental psychology, biological aspects of development, Freud's theory of psychosexual development, eight stages in psychosocial development by Erikson's theory, four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget, the three levels in Kohlberg's theory of moral evolution, the two primary dimensions of parental style.
12. Chapter 12 – Sex and Love: Are You in the Mood?
This chapter consists of the human four-stage sexual response cycle, the female sexual dysfunctions, the male sexual dysfunctions, dysfunctions that affect either sex, types of sexual variance, and the concepts of intimacy and romantic love.
13. Chapter 13 – Personality: Psychological Factors That Make You an Individual This chapter consists of the definition of personality, type-trait theories, Freud's theory of personality, aspects of personality, and three types of personality tests.
14. Chapter 14 – Abnormal Psychology: Exploring Mental Disorders
This chapter defines abnormal behavior, explains how mental disorders are classified, the principal mental disorders, and the viewpoints used to describe abnormal behavior.
15. Chapter 15 – Therapy: Helping Troubled People
This chapter consists of the definition of therapy, the two basic categories of therapy, psychodynamic therapy, client-centered therapy, central concepts associated with behavior
therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy, the significance of group therapy, and the kind of psychiatric drugs.
16. Chapter 16 – Social Psychology: Interacting with Other People
This chapter consists of the definition of social psychology, six aspects of interpersonal attraction, the four components of attitude, the aspects of the art of persuasion, conformity, and social influence, and the three ways in which human beings reduce dissonance.
Table of content
Preface ix
1. Introduction: The Foundations of Psychology 1 2. Research Methods in Psychology: Gathering Data 17 3. The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life? 30 4. Sensation: Studying the Gateways of Experience 45
5. Perception: Why Do Things Look the Way They Do? 57 6. Learning: Understanding Acquired Behavior 72 7. Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 90 8. Emotions: Riding Life’s Roller Coaster 107
9. Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 120
10. Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action 136
11. Developmental Psychology: How Children Become Adults 153
12. Sex and Love: Are You in the Mood? 174
13. Personality: Psychological Factors That Make You an Individual 191
14. Abnormal Psychology: Exploring Mental Disorders 212
15. Therapy: Helping Troubled People 231
16. Social Psychology: Interacting with Other People 247
Index 263
Questions and Answers
1. Chapter 1 – Introduction: The Foundation of Psychology Q: What is the introduction of the foundation of psychology?
A: Psychology is the science that studies the behavior of organisms. An organis is any living creature. Behavior has three aspects: (1) Cognitive processes refer to what an individual thinks. (2) Emotional states refer to what an individual feels. (3) Actions refer to what an individual does.
2. Chapter 2 – Research Methods in Psychology: Gathering Data Q: How many gathering data in research methods in psychology?
A: Researchers do their best to gather data. To gather data, various methods are used. There are naturalistic observation, the clinical method, the case study method, the survey method, the testing method, the correlational method, and the experimental method.
3. Chapter 3 – The Biology of Behavior: Is the Brain the Organ of Mental Life?
Q: Is the brain the organ of the mental life of the biology of behavior?
A: Yes, The brain is a part of the nervous system; the central functional units of the brain and the nervous system are neurons. The brain contains about 3 billion neurons. The nervous system is the body's communication network, and we have a set of glands in our body that have a lot to do with our moods, emotional states, and behavior in general. For example, in the 1983 Steve Martin film The Man with Two Brains, a woman's personality is changed when her brain is removed and then replaced with a different one. The plot is based on the assumption that the brain is the organ of mental life.
4. Chapter 4 – Sensation: Studying the Getaway of Experience Q: How is studying the getaway of experience by sensation?
A: The three ascending steps of conscious experience are sensation, perception, and cognition. The first step is associated with sense; sensation refers to the raw data of experience. The second step is associated with perception; perception refers to organized experience. The third step is associated with cognition; cognition refers to knowing.
5. Chapter 5 – Perception: Why Do Things Look the Way They Do?
Q: Why do things look the way they do in perception?
A: The link between sensation and perception is clear. Perception is possible because we have sensations. The sensation is the raw data of experience. On the other hand, perception is the organization and meaning we give to primitive information. It can be said with some degree of confidence that we use sensory information to create a psychological world. Returning to Koffka, he said there is a distinction between the geographical and psychological worlds. The geographical world is the actual world "out there," the world as defined and described by physics. The psychological world is the world "in here," as experienced by the subject.
6. Chapter 6 – Learning: Understanding Acquired Behavior Q: What is learning to understand acquired behavior?
A: Learning is a more or less permanent change in behavior or a behavioral tendency resulting from experience. Learning is "more or less" permanent. This suggests that although learning tends to resist change once it is acquired, it sometimes changes.
Behavioral tendency indicates that learning is occasionally dormant and does not reflect itself in immediate action. The word experience is in the definition. To learn, it is necessary to receive information. This is done through our sense organs.
7. Chapter 7 – Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do?
Q: Why do we do what we do in motivation?
A: The word motivation is related to words such as motor, motion, and emotion. A motive is a state of physiological or psychological arousal that is assumed to play a causal role in behavior. From the point of view of psychology as a science, a motive is an intervening variable. An intervening variable is a variable used to explain behavior. If we see someone buying a sandwich in a snack bar, we may infer that the individual is hungry.
However, he or she may in fact be buying the sandwich for a friend.
8. Chapter 8 – Emotions: Riding Life's Roller Coaster Q: What is riding life's roller coaster in emotion?
A: Emotions give life much of its dimension and depth. Although emotions can sometimes diminish the quality of existence, they also often enrich life. The ups and downs associated with our emotional states give life something of the quality of a roller-coaster ride. Some people live a wild, vibrant life characterized by extreme highs and lows. Others lead a more rational emotional energy—the highs and lows are not too harsh. But we all ride life's emotional roller coaster in one way or another. Consequently, emotions merit study and have an important place in psychology.
9. Chapter 9 – Thinking: Exploring Mental Life Q: How to explore the mental life of thinking?
A: Thinking is a mental process characterized by symbols and concepts to represent both inner and outer reality. Concepts help us to organize and simplify information. Then, the reason we are thinking is to solve problems. Some obstacles can interfere with obtaining a solution, and a mental set is a subconscious determining tendency. Then, logical thinking is thinking that employs valid reasoning to reach a correct conclusion.
10. Chapter 10 – Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action Q: What is the pursuit of rational thought and effective action in intelligence?
A: Intelligence is the global ability of the individual to think clearly and function effectively in the environment. A person with average intelligence can get along reasonably well with others. The Stanford-Binet measures general intelligence without regard to
specific mental abilities. In psychology, both personality tests and intelligence tests are forced to deal with the joint problems of validity and reliability. Fortunately, using the correlation coefficient applied to large sets of scores, a reasonable level of validity and reliability can be obtained.
11. Chapter 11 – Developmental Psychology: How Children Become Adults Q: How do children become adults in developmental psychology?
A: Every adult was once a child, and the adult was shaped and formed by experiences during childhood. Psychologists as far apart in many of their assumptions and conclusions as Sigmund Freud and John Watson subscribed to the general view that understanding adult behavior is necessary to study child behavior. When a sperm and an ovum unite to form a fertilized egg, the new being is called a zygote. The latest being is called an embryo, from one week to seven weeks. From seven weeks to birth, the newest being is called a fetus. At birth, the new being is called a neonate. Neo means “new.”
And Nate means “birth.” Thus the word neonate simply means “newborn.”
Whether psychosexual, psychosocial, cognitive, or moral, development is greatly influenced by what parents say and do. The University of California suggests two
primary dimensions of parental style (1) authoritarian-permissive and (2) accepting- rejecting. The child is allowed to make choices and important decisions. However, the democratic parent also sets realistic limits. If the child's options are unacceptable and likely to create eventual problems for the child, then the democratic parent draws a line and is capable of being firm.
12. Chapter 12 – Sex and Love: Are You in the Mood?
Q: Are you in the mood in sex and love?
A: The concept of “being in the mood” is still associated with sex and love.
Unfortunately, although sexual behavior is a natural aspect of behavior in general, there are many ways in which sexual behavior can be both maladaptive and unsatisfying. It is generally acknowledged that orgasm is the peak of sexual pleasure.
However, the orgasm itself is a part of a four-stage sexual response cycle (1) excitement, (2) plateau, (3) orgasm, and (4) resolution. A sexual dysfunction exists when the sexual response cycle manifests one of its stages in an abnormal, unsatisfactory manner.
Female sexual arousal disorder exists when the female does not respond to the kind of stimulation that is otherwise expected to induce excitement. Male erectile disorder exists when the male is either unable to attain an erection or cannot reach an erection sufficient to complete an act of sexual intercourse.
13. Chapter 13 – Personality: Psychological Factors That Make You an Individual Q: What are psychological factors that make you an individual in personality?
A: A workable definition of personality is the constellation of traits unique to the individual. The word trait, as used above, refers to your relatively stable behavioral dispositions. The word trait, as used above, refers to your relatively stable behavioral tendencies.
However, your personality is somewhat more than your traits. Your personality also consists of the ego, the conscious “I” at the center of the personality. Type-trait theories are attempts to provide consistent descriptions of personality.
Jung said that two basic personality types are the introvert and the extrovert. The introvert favors behaviors such as thinking, reading, reflecting, meditating, creative writing, remembering, composing music, daydreaming, and spending time alone. The extrovert tends to behaviors such as talking, going to motion pictures, taking trips, seeking financial success, exploring, being physically active, and spending time with a relatively large circle of friends.
14. Chapter 14 – Abnormal Psychology: Exploring Mental Disorders Q: How do explore mental disorders in abnormal psychology?
A: Abnormal behavior is a significant public health problem. Abnormal behavior deviates from a given norm or standard of behavior. Depression is sometimes called the common cold of mental disability. Chronic anxiety in the form of persistent worry is approximately as common as depression.
Additional criteria help mental health professionals identify a mental disorder's presence. First, there is almost always suffering associated with a mental disorder, second is self-defeating behavior, third is self-destructive behavior, fourth is salient behavior, and fifth is illogical behavior. These five are sufficient to establish that it takes more than statistical abnormality to think of a behavior pattern as a sign of a mental disorder.
15. Chapter 15 – Therapy: Helping Troubled People Q: How do help troubled people through therapy?
A: Treatment for mental disorders is given in various kinds of therapy. Therapy consists of procedures that aim to either cure sick people or alleviate their suffering. The term is applied to general medicine and clinical psychology, and psychiatry.
There are two basic categories of therapy: psychologically based therapies and biologically based therapies. Psychologically based therapies begin with the assumption that mental disorders are caused by emotional conflicts, maladaptive learning, cognitive errors, or similar behavioral processes. Biologically based therapies start with the belief that mental disorders are caused by actual brain and nervous system pathology.
16. Chapter 16 – Social Psychology: Interacting with Other People Q: How to interact with other people in social psychology?
A: Social behavior is behavior that involves interactions with other people. Social psychology is the systematic study of how exchanges with others in our environment
influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Interpersonal attraction exists between two people when they make or wish to make more approach responses than avoidance responses to each other.
It should be noted that attraction is not necessarily interpersonal. It is interpersonal only if the attraction is mutual. There are six aspects of interpersonal attraction; (1) physical appearance, (2) personality traits, (3) interest, (4) the matching hypothesis, (5) the ratio of gains to losses, (6) attributing motives to them. When an attitude reflects in any way on the behavior of other individuals or groups, it is called a social attitude. The evaluative component refers to the fact that an attitude is said to be either positive or negative.
Dinda Aulya Rahmah 11200140000001 4A
Book Response Form
Book title: The Grammar of Words Second Edition: An Introduction to Morphology
Author: Geert Booij
Publisher: Oxford University Press Inc.
Date published: 2007 Type of book: Reference Number of pages: 360 Book code: 9780199226245
Chapters
1. Chapter 1 – What is Linguistic Morphology?
This chapter consists of relations between words, paradigmatic and syntagmatic morphology, the functions of morphology, morphology and the lexicon, the goals of morphology, the atoms of words, morphological operations, morphological typology, summary, questions, resources for morphology, and further reading.
2. Chapter 2 – Word-Formation
This chapter consists of lexeme formation, templates, idiosyncrasies, constraints on derivation, productivity, affix ordering, compound types, compounds and phrases, compounds and derived words, interfixes and allomorphy, and synthetic compounds and noun incorporation, summary, questions, and further reading.
3. Chapter 3 – Inflection
This chapter consists of inflectional properties, the roles of Inflection, Inflection and derivation, theoretical models, morpheme order, nominal systems: gender, number, and case, categories of verbal Inflection, autonomous morphology, summary, questions, and further reading.
4. Chapter 4 – Interfaces
This chapter consists of morphology and phonology, interface principles,
allomorphy and affix competition, cyclicity and co-phonologies, the morphological use of phonology, words and phrases, grammatical functions and case marking, morphology and syntactic valency, periphrasis and constructional idioms, the semantic interpretation of morphological structure, semantics and syntactic valency, polysemy, summary,
questions, and further reading.
5. Chapter 5 – Morphology and Mind
This chapter consists of morphology and mind, the mental lexicon, acquisition of morphology, sources of evidence, models of morphological knowledge, morphological processing, the historical perspective, the nature of language change, historical sources of morphology, changes in morphological rules, changes in word structure, summary, questions, and further reading.
6. Chapter 6 – Conclusions
This chapter consists of the notion ‘word’, the demarcation of words and phrases, phonological words, and lexical integrity, summary, and further reading.
Table of Contents
Typographic Conventions vii
Abbreviations and Symbols viii
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xii
Preface to the Second Edition xiii
Preface to the First Edition xiv
I. What is Linguistic Morphology? 1
1. Morphology: basic notions 3
2. Morphological analysis 27
II. Word-Formation 49
3. Derivation 51
4. Compounding 75
III. Inflection 97
5. Inflection 99
6. Inflectional systems 125
IV. Interfaces 151
7. The interface between morphology and phonology 153 8. Morphology and syntax: demarcation and interaction 185
9. Morphology and semantics 207
V. Morphology and Mind 229
10. Morphology and psycholinguistics 231
11. Morphology and language change 255
VI. Conclusions 279
12. The word as a linguistic unit 281
Answers to questions 295
Glossary of terms 307
References 325
Language index 339
Index of terms 341
Questions and Answers
1. What is Linguistic Morphology?
1. Morphology: basic notions
Q: What is basic notions of morphology?
A: The term ‘morphology’ has been taken over from biology, where it is used to denote the study of the forms of plants and animals. It was first used for linguistic
purposes in 1859 by the German linguist August Schleicher (Salmon 2000) to refer to the study of the form of words. In present-day linguistics, the term ‘morphology’ refers to studying the internal structure of words and the systematic form-meaning
correspondences between words.
2. Morphological analysis
Q: What is morphological analysis?
A: Morphological analysis investigates principles and constraints to the ordering of affixes to a multiply complex word. From the point of view of language acquisition, the paradigmatic perspective on complex words is the starting point of morphological analysis.
2. Word-Formation 3. Derivation
Q: What is derivation?
A: Derivation is the formation of lexemes using affixation conversion, reduplication, and root-and-pattern morphology. The primary distinction between Inflection and derivation is a functional one: derivation creates new lexemes, and Inflection serves to create different forms of the same lexeme. The derivation is always between the root and the Inflection.
4. Compounding
Q: What is compounding?
A: Compounding is acquired relatively early because it complies with two principles, transparency and simplicity. The meaning of compounds can be related very quickly to those of its constituent words, and hence their meaning is transparent.
Moreover, the form of the constituent elements is not changed when they are part of compounds and thus conforms to the requirement of simplicity.
3. Inflection
5. Infection
Q: What is Inflection?
A: Inflection is the expression of morphosyntactic properties of lexemes. These properties either express a particular meaning (inherent Inflection) or are required in specific syntactic contexts (contextual Inflection). Contextual Inflection indicates syntactic relationships between words. In contextual Inflection the relation between two elements in a syntactic configuration is marked either on the head or on the dependent.
6. Inflectional systems
Q: What are inflectional systems?
A: Systems for the inflections of nouns, adjectives, and verbs show complicated patterns of formal variation in the expression of morphosyntactic categories. That is why often, some declensions and conjugations have to be distinguished. The main inflections categories for nouns and adjectives are gender, number, and case. Verbs may be
morphologically marked for tense, aspect, mood, gender, person, and number.
4. Interfaces
7. The interface between morphology and phonology Q: How to interface between morphology and phonology??
A: The interface between morphology and phonology discussed here is fully covered by the following two mapping principles for English:
(i) each constituent of a compound corresponds with a phonological word;
(ii) in the case of N + N compounds, the first phonological word is the strongest.
In the interface between morphology and phonology: morphology provides some alternatives, equivalent from the morphological point of view, and the phonology then computes which of them is optimal from the phonological point of view.
8. Morphology and syntax: demarcation and interaction
Q: What is demarcation and interaction in morphology and syntax?
A: The relation between morphology and syntax must be dealt with from some perspectives. One is the two demarcation: when is a multi-morphemic sequence a word, and when is it a phrase? The criterion of Lexical Integrity is the most important one for a proper delimitation of morphology from syntax. Second, morphology and syntax interact in two directions: syntactic constructs may form parts of complex words, and syntax, in its turn, governs the use of morphological case marking on words. The third perspective is that of syntactic valency: morphological operations may affect the syntactic valency of words.
A general observation concerning the interaction between morphology and syntax is that they make use of the same word class categories: morphological rules operate on words of a specific word class (noun, verb, adjective, etc.) and also create words or words forms of a specific category.
9. Morphology and semantics
Q: What are morphology and semantics?
A: Morphology is to change the syntactic category of words with the effect that other syntactic uses are made possible. The general principle of compositionally governs the semantic interpretation of complex words. Correspondence rules specify relationships between formal structure and semantic interpretation of complex words.
5. Morphology and Mind
10. Morphology and psycholinguistics
Q: What are morphology and psycholinguistics?
A: Morphology is a battlefield for competing models of linguistic knowledge and discussion on the nature of linguistic rules. Meanwhile, psycholinguistics is the study of the mental aspects of language and speech. The frequency of words in actual language use correlates with their activation level in the mental lexicon. Statistical and
probabilistic data are therefore relevant for adequate models of morphological knowledge.
11. Morphology and language change
Q: How does language change in morphology?
A: We cannot predict when and how languages change. It is possible to identify linguistic factors that constrain and shape language change, such as the distinction between inherent and contextual Inflection. Language change is not restricted to the morphological system of languages. In order to understand this, we might invoke the invisible hand theory made famous by Adam Smith in his The Wealth of Nations to explain how the economic market seems to behave as a rational person, as if led by an invisible hand.
6. Conclusions
12. The word as a linguistic unit
Q: What is the word as a linguistic unit?
A: A classical definition of the notion ‘word’ can be found in Bloom Weld’s Language, which defines the word as a ‘‘minimum free form’’ (Bloom Weld 1935: 178).
A theoretical term is embedded in a network of theoretical distinctions and hypotheses.
The ingredients used for developing an adequate characterization of the notion ‘word’ are the distinction between lexeme and word-form, between words and lexical unit/listeme, a proper demarcation of syntax and morphology, and the distinction between
morphosyntactic, phonological, and orthographic words.