O R I G I N A L
R E S E A R C H
Equivalence salting and temporal dominance of
sensations analysis for different sodium chloride substitutes in cream cheese
T H A I S L T D A S I L V A , * V A N E S S A R D E S O U Z A , A N A C M P I N H E I R O , C L E I T O N A N U N E S and T A S S Y A N A V M F R E I R E
Department of Food Science, Federal University of Lavras, 37200-000, Lavras, MG, Brazil
The purpose of the study was to determine the potency and equivalence of salt substitutes (potas- sium chloride, magnesium chloride, monosodium glutamate, potassium lactate, calcium lactate and potassium phosphate monobasic) in cream cheese and to evaluate sensory flavour profiles. The methods used were magnitude estimation and temporal dominance of sensations (TDS). Equivalent salting of cream cheese containing 1% sodium chloride was obtained using: 1.2% potassium chlo- ride, 2.56% monosodium glutamate, 2.5% magnesium chloride and 2.98% potassium phosphate.
The TDS revealed that, other than salty taste, the most significantflavours produced were sour and bitter. The potencies of salt substitutes are much lower than that of sodium chloride.
Keywords Cream cheese, Sodium chloride, Salting equivalence, Salt power, Temporal dominance of sensations, Salt substitutes.
INTRODUCTION
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is one of the most important ingredients in many foods because of its low cost and several important properties (Albarracínet al. 2011). Salt contributes to food safety (Kremer et al. 2009) insofar as it can reduce water activity (Albarracín et al. 2011), and it contributes to flavour enhancement (Plat- ting 1988; McSweeney 1997; Rulikowska et al.
2008) due to its influence on the activity of enzymes that are responsible for the develop- ment of different organoleptic parameters (Albarracín et al. 2011). Salt also influences the nutritional value, composition and functionality of foods (Guoet al.2011).
Salt contains sodium, which is essential because it contributes to the mechanisms regu- lating blood pressure, the transport of intracellu- lar water, osmotic pressure and the transmission of nerve impulses (Kaplan 2000; Cruz et al.
2011). An insufficient intake of sodium may adversely affect the nervous and muscular systems (Brody 1999), while excessive amounts may increase blood pressure (Jimenez-Colmen- ero et al. 2001). The chloride in salt is also important because it facilitates the uptake of
potassium in the body, is a component of gastric acid and increases the ability of blood to trans- port carbon dioxide (Brody 1999). The recom- mended daily intake for adults is approximately 2.4 g sodium or 6 g NaCl, amounts that can be naturally found in foods (Kaplan 2000; Cruz et al. 2011).
Of major concern is the impact of excess salt (sodium chloride) in the diet on blood pressure regulation. Epidemiological studies (ICRG 1988), migration studies (Poulter et al. 1990), intervention studies in population and treatment trials (He and MacGregor 2002) have all shown that dietary salt is a causative factor for increased blood pressure and that high salt concentrations in the bloodstream contribute sig- nificantly to increases in blood pressure with age. High blood pressure is the major cause of cardiovascular disease, accounting for 62% of strokes and 49% of coronary heart disease (WHO 2002). Although they remain controver- sial in the scientific community, some studies have shown that a high intake of salt can cause left ventricular hypertrophy (WHO 2003).
In spite of the well-established recommenda- tions for daily sodium intake, sodium consump- tion has increased considerably in the last
*Author for
correspondence. E-mail:
©2013 Society of Dairy Technology
several years. In some age groups, for example, sodium consumption in 1990 was almost twice that in 1970. In contrast to the recommended amounts of 1.5–2.4 g per day, statistics for Americans reveal consumption of approxi- mately 4 g of sodium per day (Johnson and Paulus 2008;
Cruzet al.2011).
According to a research study performed by the Brazilian Ministry of Health, Brazilians consume an average of 12 g of salt per day (4.8 g Na/day) (Brazil 2011). For compari- son, the limit considered healthy by the World Health Organization (2011) is 5 g of salt per day.
Cream cheese is a soft, fresh cheese with a fine, smooth consistency and slightly buttery flavour due to the produc- tion of diacetyl. It is obtained by the coagulation of cream or a mixture of milk and cream by acidification with the use of a starter culture, and is ready for consumption soon after processing (Phadungath 2005; Alves et al. 2013). Cream cheese is high in calories and protein content, has moderate sodium content and contains minerals including calcium, phosphorus and vitamins A, D and B2 (Mejía and Sepulve- da 1999).
The ability to reduce the amount of salt in foods depends on many factors related to the nature of food products, such as composition, processing methods and manufacturing con- ditions (Ruusunen and Puolanne 2005). The major techno- logical approaches for reducing sodium content in food are decreasing the amount of NaCl, by using other salts such as potassium chloride (KCl), calcium chloride (CaCl2), magne- sium chloride (MgCl2), phosphate or lactate to partially or completely replace NaCl, and addingflavour enhancers such as monosodium glutamate (Albarracínet al. 2011).
The technique of temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) is a recent methodology that records several sensory attributes simultaneously over time to obtain the sequences of sensations (Reverend et al. 2008). With this descriptive sensory method, users assess that sensation is dominant and score its intensity over time until the sensation ends or another appears as dominant (Labbeet al.2009).
According to Appel and Anderson (2010), the food indus- try should focus on reducing the salt content of processed foods, as approximately 75% of dietary salt comes from these sources.
Reducing the amount of sodium chloride in cheese is par- ticularly challenging for the industry because salt has very specific functions in cheese production that affect flavour, body, texture and extended shelf life (Purdy and Armstrong 2007; Cruz et al. 2011). Furthermore, consumers rely on salt flavour as one of the characteristics that distinguish dif- ferent types of cheese but there is also demand for varied cheese options with less sodium (Johnson and Paulus 2008;
Cruzet al.2011).
A study by Felicio et al. (2013) showed that the cheeses available in Brazil have high sodium contents and suggested a need for reformulation by manufacturers. Considering that
the portion size and intake frequency for cheeses varies between consumers, these results are a matter of concern from a public health point of view. However, few studies have been conducted involving the production of cheeses with reduced sodium levels in Brazil, some recent studies were with Requeij~ao cheese (Van Dender et al. 2010) and Minas Frescal cheese (Gomes et al. 2011). There have also been a number of studies aimed at developing low-sodium cheeses (Martens et al. 1976; Lindsay et al. 1982; DeMott et al. 1984; Karahadian and Lindsay 1984; Fitzgerald and Buckley 1985; Aly 1995; Reddy and Marth 1995; Zorrilla and Rubiolo 1997; Ayyash and Shah 2010; Ayyash et al.
2012, 2013; Grummer et al.2012 and Kamlehet al. 2012).
The purpose of the present study was to determine the equivalence/salting power of different salt substitutes (potas- sium chloride, magnesium chloride, potassium phosphate, potassium lactate, calcium lactate and monosodium gluta- mate) in relation to cream cheese with sodium chloride and to analyse the sensory profile of cream cheese with these substitutes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials
The materials used were standardised milk, water, pasteur- ised milk cream, sodium phosphate, sodium chloride (Veteccâ), potassium chloride (Vetecâ), magnesium chlo- ride (Vetecâ), calcium chloride (Doremusâ), potassium phosphate (CRQâ), monosodium glutamate (Aji-no-motoâ), potassium lactate (Puracâ), calcium lactate (Puracâ), potas- sium sorbate preservative, starter mesophilic culture DVS and commercial liquid rennet (Ha-laâ).
Preparation of cream cheese
The cream cheese was prepared using a methodology adapted from Furtado and Lourencßo Neto (1994). Three batches of cream cheese were manufactured, a batch (1 kg) for sensory panellist selection and training, a second batch (10 kg) for the equivalence salting trials and a third batch (5 kg) for TDS trials. All batches were made in a homoge- neous manner to avoid differences in any other aspects but salt content. Milk standardised to 8% fat with pasteurised cream (50% fat), 2% DVS mesophilic starter culture (mix- ture of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and cremoris) and 0.25% commercial liquid rennet (HA-LAâ, batch number 32854; CHR. Hansen Ind and Trade ltd., Valinhos, SP, Bra- zil) were added to cheese tanks. Fermentation took place for approximately 18 h at 25 °C. Upon reaching pH 4.6, the coagulum was cut into cubes to facilitate the release of serum. After washing the curd with 25% water at 25 °C, the cream cheese were placed in cotton drainage cloths and refrigerated at 4 °C for approximately 15 h.
After 20 h, the remaining ingredients (different salts, 0.1%
potassium sorbate) were added. The cream cheese (in 150 g
portions) were stored in sealed plastic containers and main- tained refrigerated at 4 °C throughout the analysis period.
Sensory analysis
Equivalent salting
To determine the equivalent saltiness for various salt replacements relative to the salt taste of sodium chloride in cream cheese treatments, sensory evaluations were con- ducted at various stages. The procedures used at each stage were based on the methods described by Souza et al.
(2011).
Selection of panellists
Twenty-five cheese consumers who had available time and no restrictions preventing their consumption of this product were recruited to determine the equivalent salt of cheese compared with sodium chloride (Souzaet al. 2011).
The sequential method proposed by Wald (Wald 1945;
Amerine et al. 1965), in which a number of triangular tests are applied, was used to select panellists who could reliably discriminate between samples (Meilgaardet al.1999).
In the triangular tests, two significantly different samples of (P < 0.01) were used: cream cheese with 1.0% sodium chloride and cream cheese with 1.25% sodium chloride.
From the defined parameters (p = 0.30, p1 = 0.70, a = 0.10 and b = 0.10), the Wald graph was constructed, and panellists were selected or rejected according to the number of correctly analysed tests in the triangular graph (Souzaet al. 2011).
Using eight triangular tests, 12 judges were selected. The selected panellists were college students between the ages of 18 and 27 and included eight females and four males.
Training of tasters to use the magnitude scale
The panellists selected were trained to use magnitude scale, where the panellists were asked to estimate the intensity of the saltiness in the cheeses compared with the reference.
For example, if the sample produced twice the saltiness of the reference, it should receive a value of 2; if it presented half the saltiness, it was given a value of 0.5. In the training session, the panellists received three samples of cream cheese (0.5%, 1% and 2% sodium chloride) and were asked to determine the potency of these samples relative to a refer- ence sample (cream cheese with 1% sodium chloride). The ideal concentration of 1% sodium chloride was determined based on available information for commercial cream cheese and pretests.
Determination of the equivalent salt concentrations
The selected and trained panellists received a reference sample (with the optimal concentration of sodium chloride, 1%) whose potency was designated with a saltiness value of 1. The panellists were then given several cream cheese
samples that were coded and presented in a balanced man- ner (Macfieet al. 1989) and asked to estimate the intensities of the salty taste of the cheese samples compared with the reference. The analysis was made in three replications.
To determine the equivalent saltiness of the sodium chlo- ride substitutes relative to sodium chloride, the series of concentrations presented in Table 1 was used. The concen- trations of the sodium chloride substitutes in the central column were based on pretests. A multiplication factor of 1.6 was used for the other concentrations, according to Cardosoet al.(2004) and Marcellini et al.(2005).
After analysing the data as described by Souza et al.
(2011), the ‘power function’ for sodium chloride and each sodium chloride substitute was obtained. It is calculated as follows:
S¼aCn ð1Þ
whereS is the sensation perceived,Cis the concentration of the stimulus,a is the antilog of the y-intercept and n is the obtained slope.
Based on the power functions for sodium chloride and each substitute and the ideal concentration of sodium chlo- ride in cream cheese (1%), the equivalent concentration of each substitute was estimated as described by Souza et al.
(2011).
Determination of the potencies of the sodium chloride substitutes
The potency of each sodium chloride substitute was calcu- lated as the ratio between the ideal concentration of sodium chloride (1%) and the equivalent concentration of the sodium chloride substitute in the cream cheese (Souzaet al.
2011).
Temporal dominance of sensations analysis
We recruited ten panellists from the salting equivalence test to participate in the TDS analysis. Two preliminary sessions
Table 1 Concentrations of sodium chloride and sodium chloride substitutes used for determining the equivalent saltiness of cream cheese relative to 1% sodium chloride
Salts
Concentrations for the equivalent salt (%)
Sodium chloride 0.39 0.62 1.00 1.60 2.56
Potassium chloride 0.47 0.75 1.20 1.92 3.07 Monosodium glutamate 1.00 1.6 2.56 4.10 6.55 Magnesium chloride 0.98 1.56 2.50 4.00 6.40 Potassium phosphate 1.25 2.00 3.20 5.12 8.19 Calcium chloride 1.95 3.12 5.00 8.00 12.80
Calcium lactate 1.95 3.12 5.00 8.00 12.80
Potassium lactate 2.73 4.38 7.00 11.20 17.92
were conducted according to the methodology described by Albert et al. (2012). In the first session, the panellists were introduced to the notion of the temporality of sensations (i.e. TDS) and were introduced to the data acquisition pro- gram SensoMaker (Nunes and Pinheiro 2012). In the second session, the panellists participated in a simulation of a TDS session with several samples of cream cheese to ensure that all of their questions were addressed and to familiarise them with the computer program and methodology. This session also defined the total duration time of each experiment as 20 seconds. The attributes selected by the panel were salty, bitter, sweet, umami, sour, spicy, astringent and off-taste.
The panel evaluated three replicates for each of the four cheese samples: the standard cream cheese sample with sodium chloride (1%) and three samples of cream cheese with sodium chloride substitutes (potassium chloride, mono- sodium glutamate and potassium phosphate) at the concen- trations that were determined to yield the same degree of saltiness as 1% sodium chloride.
The samples were presented monadically, and the panel- lists were asked to rinse their mouths with water between each sample. The samples were served in individual booths in a balanced complete block design (Macfie et al. 1989).
Disposable white plastic cups were used and labelled with three-digit numbers.
The methodology described by Pineau et al. (2009) for the SensoMaker software was used to compute the TDS curves. Briefly, two lines are drawn in the TDS graphical display corresponding to the‘chance level’ and the ‘signifi- cance level’. The ‘chance level’ is the dominance rate that an attribute can obtain by chance, while the ‘significance level’ is the minimum value for the rate to be considered significant (Pineau et al. 2009). The calculation utilises the confidence interval of a binomial proportion based on a normal approximation, according to Pineau et al.(2009):
Ps¼Poþ1:645
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Poð1PoÞ
n r
ð2Þ
where Ps is the least significant proportion value (a= 0.05) at any point in time for a TDS curve and n is the number of subject replicates.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Equivalent saltiness
Five of the eight salts were found to be viable substitutes. It was concluded that the potassium lactate and calcium lactate salts did not sufficiently produce the taste of salt in the product because the scores of all the panellists at all concen- tration levels used for these salts were <100 or less salty than the standard (cream cheese with 1% sodium chloride).
Thus, even the highest concentrations of these lactate salts (17.92% and 12.8%) were insufficient for curing the cheese.
In meat products, potassium lactate is used to enhancefla- vour and increase shelf life due to its reduction of water activity. However, the total replacement of sodium chloride by potassium lactate is prohibited by its bitter taste (Brewer et al. 1991; Gouet al. 1996; Guardia et al.2006).
Calcium chloride was excluded from further analysis because at high concentrations (5%), this salt coagulated the product and altered its texture. According to Perry (2004), calcium chloride increases the content of Ca++ions in milk, accelerates the coagulation of casein and helps establish the coagulum. Although calcium chloride is added to some cheeses to produce this desired effect, it does not represent a characteristic consumers expect in cream cheese.
After obtaining the data from the test magnitude scale, the logarithmic values of concentrations (C) for sodium chloride and viable salt substitutes (potassium chloride, magnesium chloride, monosodium glutamate and potassium phosphate) were plotted against the logarithmic values of the magni- tudes (estimated and normalised accordingly) for perceived stimuli. The points were used to perform linear regressions for sodium chloride and the various salts, and equations corresponding to the straight lines were determined (Figure 1).
The positioning of the curves in Figure 1 can be used to identify the relative power of the different salts used. The proximity of the potassium chloride and sodium chloride curves indicates that the amount of potassium chloride required to yield the same saltiness as sodium chloride is similar. Accordingly, increased distance from other salt curves indicates that a greater quantity of those substitutes is needed to produce the same salt intensity.
Considering all of the curves, potassium phosphate, monosodium glutamate and magnesium chloride are the substitutes with the lowest salting power because they are the most distant from the sodium chloride curve. Further- more, the proximity of the three curves indicates they do not differ from one another.
From the equations for sodium chloride and the sodium chloride substitutes (Figure 1), a simple power function was obtained: S =aCn(Table 2).
From the power functions obtained for sodium chloride and the substitutes, potencies and the amount of substitute required to produce the same salt taste as 1% sodium chloride in cream cheese were calculated (Table 3).
Table 3 shows that the lowest substitute concentration required to produce the same salty taste as 1% sodium chlo- ride in cream cheese was observed for potassium chloride, followed by magnesium chloride, monosodium glutamate and potassium phosphate.
In the present study, potassium chloride was found to have the highest salting power (83.33) among the substi- tutes, but it was less than the power of sodium chloride.
The lowest salting power was observed for potassium phos- phate (33.56), while monosodium glutamate (39.06) and
magnesium chloride (40.00) showed intermediate powers.
These results are consistent with those shown in Figure 2.
The lower potencies of the salt substitutes compared with sodium chloride reflect the fact that 70–80% of salty taste perceived corresponds to the presence of the Na cation (Formaker and Hill 1988; Mattes 2001). Therefore, when this molecule is replaced by other cations such as potas- sium, magnesium and calcium, the taste perceived is less salty and more acidic and bitter (Mooster 1980).
Temporal dominance of sensations analysis
Figures 2–6 show the TDS profiles for the four cream cheeses evaluated in the study. Each curve represents the
change in the dominance rate of an attribute over time. The upper dotted line represents the significance line; results above this line indicate significant taste/flavour perceived.
The lower dotted line corresponds to chance, signifying values marked at random (Pineauet al.2009).
The TDS analyses show that in the cream cheese with sodium chloride (Figure 2), the salty taste was the dominant Table 2Antilog of the y-intercept (a), intercept on the ordinate (n),
linear coefficient of determination (R2) and power function of the results to determine the equivalent saltiness of sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, potassium chloride, monosodium glutamate and potassium phosphate relative to 1% sodium chloride in cream cheese
Salt a n R2 ‘Power Function’
Sodium chloride 1.00 1.18 0.9860 S=1 C1,18 Potassium chloride 0.77 1.43 0.9928 S=0.77 C1,43 Magnesium chloride 0.48 0.81 0.9495 S=0.4752 C0,81 Potassium phosphate 0.42 0.80 0.9963 S=0.4171 C0,8 Monosodium glutamate 0.45 0.86 0.9325 S=0.4451 C0,86
Table 3Equivalent concentrations and potencies of potassium chlo- ride, magnesium chloride, monosodium glutamate and potassium phosphate relative to 1% sodium chloride in cream cheese
Salts Concentration Potency
Potassium chloride 1.2 83.33
Magnesium chloride 2.5 40.00
Monosodium glutamate 2.56 39.06
Potassium phosphate 2.98 33.56
Figure 2 A graphical TDS representation for the cream cheese with sodium chloride.
Figure 1 Linearised power functions for cream cheese salted with sodium chloride, potassium chloride, magnesium chloride, monosodium glutamate and potassium phosphate.
Figure 3 A graphical TDS representation for the cream cheese with potassium chloride.
taste throughout the measured time – 20 seconds. In the cream cheese with potassium chloride (Figure 3), the salty taste and bitter taste are dominant, and salty was perceived with greater dominance rate than bitter up to approximately 7 seconds, but after that time, the bitter taste dominated.
In cream cheese with monosodium glutamate (Figure 4), the salty taste prevailed for approximately 8 seconds as the significant taste; sour and umami tastes were perceived after that point, but did not generate significant values. The emer- gence of the umami taste is consistent with the flavours that have long been associated with monosodium glutamate (Kawamura and Kare 1987).
In the cream cheese with magnesium chloride (Figure 5), a significant salty taste lasted for approximately 9 seconds.
Thereafter, a bitter taste predominated until the end of the analysis; the taste was also characterised as undesirable and more intense than the bitter taste observed for potassium chloride.
The potassium phosphate (Figure 6) had the least desir- able profile, with a predominant salty taste lasting only 4 seconds followed by a strong sour taste in the cream cheese for the next 16 seconds of analysis. A significant bit- ter flavour was also observed for this salt substitute.
Taken together, the results indicate that the sensory profile for monosodium glutamate was the most similar to that of sodium chloride. However, considering that the glutamate salty power (39.06) is well below the sodium chloride, the use of this sodium chloride substitute alone probably will not reduce significantly the level of sodium.
Although most findings have shown that substitution of sodium chloride with mixtures of 50:50% NaCl and KCl does not result in biochemical, microbiological or textural alterations, some studies have reported that mixtures at this proportion do affect the sensory quality of cheese.
Therefore, ratios with greater NaCl fractions, such as 70:30 or 60:40, tend to be more attractive because they simulta- neously reduce the sodium content and maintain the charac- teristicflavour of cheeses (Guinee and O’Kennedy 2007).
In a study by Lefier et al. (1987), NaCl replacement with MgCl2 in the production of a Gruyere-type cheese reduced the residual sodium by 80% and doubled the magnesium content. Although this change resulted in a slightly bitter aftertaste and changes in body (increased smoothness), the cheese was considered acceptable according to the sensory analysis.
With respect to quality, the production of processed Cheddar type cheese with reduced sodium content (75% Na reduction) and replacement of NaCl with a combination of emulsifiers and potassium salts (citrate and phosphate) yielded acceptable results (Karahadian and Lindsay 1984).
Although reducing sodium levels in foods represents a very important concern, the findings of the present study indicate that complete replacement of salt with salt substitutes remains an impractical solution because most of the substi- tutes have salting potencies well below that of sodium chlo- ride. Furthermore, the substitutes often generate undesirable tastes in other strong intensity. One possible alternative is the partial replacement of sodium chloride that takes into consid- eration the known behaviour of other salt substitutes.
Figure 5 A graphical TDS representation for the cream cheese with magnesium chloride.
Figure 6 A graphical TDS representation for the cream cheese with potassium phosphate.
Figure 4 A graphical TDS representation for the cream cheese with monosodium glutamate.
CONCLUSION
To achieve the same salty taste of cream cheese with 1%
sodium chloride, the following levels of salt substitutes were required: 1.2% potassium chloride, 2.5% magnesium chlo- ride, 2.56% monosodium glutamate and 2.98% potassium phosphate. The TDS analysis revealed that all of the salt substitutes analysed produced other tastes in addition to salty taste, including significant sour and bitter tastes that were generally regarded as undesirable. Further study of these salt substitutes remains necessary because of limita- tions associated with the complete replacement of sodium chloride. Even in the case of glutamate, which had a similar sensory profile to sodium chloride, the salting power of this particular substitute was low, which would result in increased cost without a substantial reduction in sodium content. Possible alternatives include combinations of salt substitutes and the partial reduction of sodium chloride.
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