The Evolving Technologies in the Fight Against Climate Change

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Carbon Capture,

Utilization,

and Storage.

eBook

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Carbon capture encompasses two primary objectives: reducing industrial CO₂ emissions to the atmosphere and addressing the accumulated CO₂ that is already there. CO₂ is the primary greenhouse gas and hence at the center of the global climate crisis. Emissions from human activity are boosting the atmosphere’s natural greenhouse effect, causing global temperatures to rise.

Almost all industrial activities generate CO₂ emissions, causing irreversible changes in weather patterns, food production, sea levels, and more.

The technologies to measure the amount of carbon captured – directly from air, from industrial and community emissions, and from the manufacturing of goods – have evolved significantly over the years. Recent advances have further

enhanced their accuracy and reliability, making them increasingly effective tools in our fight against global climate change.

While it may seem new, the concept of carbon capture has been around since the 1970s. It has taken until now for ideas to come to fruition and technologies to start reaching large-scale maturity – and for the world to wake up to the fact that CO₂ emissions must be curbed, stopped, and even reversed in order to keep the Earth habitable.

Carbon capture – an essential tool in the fight against climate change?

Decarbonization is the movement of economies and industries towards zero-carbon or even carbon-negative operation. In a decarbonized world, we no longer produce nor emit excess carbon dioxide into our already frail atmosphere, and we compensate for emissions that cannot be abated. Not all industries can be decarbonized. For example, the chemical industry will always need carbon as a building block for organic compounds. For industries like these, defossilization is a more suitable approach.

Defossilization is the complete decoupling of industries and economies from fossil-based energy and fossil resources.

This includes no longer using fossil-based energy sources, replacing oil-based plastics with renewable materials, and capturing carbon emissions. Even industries that use carbon as an essential building block are rapidly defossilizing – that is, moving towards using non fossil-based carbon.

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vaisala.com CCUS refers to a suite of technologies that will play a crucial role in reducing global emissions and helping to achieve climate goals.

These technologies can be used to tackle carbon emissions in three different ways:

1. Avoiding/reducing emissions through point source capture

Industrial facilities and power plants generate CO₂ emissions as part of their operation either through the manufacturing process or by burning fossil fuels. CCUS is used to capture these emissions instead of them being released into the atmosphere.

2. Removing carbon from the atmosphere

Over the past few centuries, billions of tons of CO₂ have been released into the atmosphere as a result of human activity. Because CO₂ is a very stable molecule it remains in the atmosphere for a long time, contributing to climate change by accelerating the planet’s natural greenhouse effect.

CCUS can be used to address this problem by capturing CO₂ directly from the air. This is known as carbon dioxide removal, or CDR. The International Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) defines CDR as human activities that capture CO₂ from the atmosphere and store it durably in reservoirs or products.

What is carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS)?

CDRCaptured from the air and stored CCUCaptured

and reused

CCSCaptured at the source and stored Fossil carbon

Synthetic aviation fuel

GEOLOGICAL STORAGE Geological

storage

Carbon sinks Atmospheric carbon dioxide

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3. Storing or utilizing captured carbon

Captured carbon can be used in a wide variety of applications (CCU) or locked away for good in permanent storage (CCS).

Carbon storage is essentially a waste-disposal process, where CO₂ is the waste. It can be stored deep underground in porous rock formations such as depleted gas or oil fields, or in saline aquifers.

Other methods, such as CO₂ mineralization, are also being piloted and developed.

CO₂ is also a valuable raw material for manufacturing new products.

By utilizing existing carbon rather than extracting new fossil fuels we have the possibility to create a circular system and help several industries to defossilize. e-fuels, chemicals, and plastics are examples of products that could benefit from captured carbon.

Figure 1: The CCUS value chain.

There are already a number of applications where CO₂ can be used directly. For example, it can be injected into greenhouses to enhance plant growth, used to make carbonated beverages, or used as a refrigerant in cooling systems.

Infrastructure is needed to link the capture and storage parts of the value chain if we are to create a genuinely circular system.

Captured carbon can be transported via pipelines, road, rail, or sea, depending on the distance and intended end use. Regardless of the transport method, CO₂ is usually dried and compressed, and sometimes liquefied.

GREENHOUSE

FOOD & BEVERAGE E-KEROSENE COOLANTS

CONCRETE CURING

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According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), CCUS holds a central role in the transition to net zero:

The role of CCUS

in climate change mitigation

Coal and gas-fired power plants fitted with CCUS could provide system-balancing services and flexibility for grids where the amount of intermittent renewable power is increasing.

In one of the scenarios described in the IEA report, by 2070 60% of low carbon H2 is expected to be green and 40% blue (from fossil-based production that is equipped with CCUS).

The cement, iron and steel, and chemical industries face significant challenges in achieving net zero due to their carbon use or release of CO₂ as a by-product of production. For these industries, point source carbon capture technologies will be a crucial element in reaching net-zero emissions.

According to a report by the IEA, in 2070 it is expected that 2.9 Gt of emitted CO₂ will remain in the atmosphere and need to be offset through carbon removal.

Tackling emissions from existing infrastructure

A pathway for low-carbon H2 production (blue H2)

A solution for the most challenging emissions

Removing carbon from the atmosphere

2. 1.

4. 3.

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Technologies for point source carbon capture have been around for decades. Initially oil and gas companies extracted CO₂ from natural gas, and injected it into oil fields, increasing oil production. The deployment of carbon capture technologies and their wide-scale adoption have until recently remained slow. However, there are clear signs today that CCUS is evolving into a widely recognized climate tool.

The project pipeline has grown significantly in recent years and there is more policy ambition and action than ever before.

00 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 2010

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Early development Advanced development In construction Operational

Figure 2: Capacity of the commercial facility pipeline since 2010 (Source) Mtpa CO₂

Year

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What is driving CCUS adoption? The answer lies with the urgent need for climate change mitigation and the growing recognition of CCUS as one of the possible solutions.

Drivers

Net-zero commitments

Sense of urgency to address climate change

Recognition of CCUS as a viable tool to decarbonize,

especially in industries where it is challenging

CO₂ shortage: In the long term, CO₂ will also be needed e.g.

as a feedstock for the chemical industry and in e-fuel production Growing political support

and investments New business

models Evolving regulatory

landscape

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If CCUS is to be successfully implemented it is essential to address financial challenges, simplify legal complexities, encourage market development, and foster social acceptance.

Challenges

Energy and cost intensiveness CCUS projects have historically been expensive, with the capture

phase being the most costly.

Infrastructure

The complete value chain needs to be developed simultaneously.

Non-technical challenges arise from legal complexities and

multi-state projects.

Revenue streams &

market development CO₂ storage has lacked

financial incentive.

CO₂ utilization makes business sense, but markets are

still emerging.

Policy support is needed to foster supply and demand.

Social acceptance Lack of social acceptance can slow down CCUS project development or even lead to

projects being cancelled.

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vaisala.com With mature carbon capture technologies it may be difficult to achieve

cost reductions, making efficient use of the capture plant and process optimization vital.

When developing new capture technologies, reliable measurements are key to understanding and optimizing process efficiency and process kinetics, and proving the capture rate.

Optimized capture yield

Continuous monitoring enables you to optimize your process yield in real time by measuring every carbon molecule that enters and exits the capture process.

Improved process control

CO₂ measurement can establish carbon levels throughout your process, helping to determine whether it is working as intended.

Improved cost efficiency

Carbon capture is a balance between efficiency and cost. According to Brandl et al. (2021), energy and cost expenditure gets progressively higher when capture rates go above 90%. For instance, for open cycle gas-fired power plants, going from a 90% to a 96% capture rate incurs a 12 to 15% cost increase.

But going to a 99% capture rate basically doubles the cost. To be able to accurately define the capture rate, it is important to select measurement technologies that are robust, reliable, and require little or no maintenance.

Reliable measurements – the key to success management

Costs begin to increase sharply as capture rates approach 100%

Figure 3: Carbon capture rates and costs in a gas-fired power plant (Source: Brandl et al, [2021], Beyond 90% capture: Possible, but at what cost? International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control)

Other OPEX Cooling Maintenance Steam Other CAPEX Heat Exchange Stripper Absorber 160

140 120 100 80 60 40 20

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99

$/tCO₂

Capture rate %

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Why online measurements are crucial in direct air capture Although the sorbent material in DAC systems has a stated performance level, quality fluctuations between production batches can reduce the ability of this material to adsorb CO₂. The sorbent material may also degrade over time. Accurate online CO₂ measurement can reveal the actual performance of the material and measure how it degrades due to aging.

Accurate, real-time online measurements serve multiple crucial functions in the DAC process. They are essential for optimizing the switching time between the adsorption and desorption phases, for example. Furthermore, they play a vital role in determining that the capture process is working as well as it should. For example, if the measurements show 95% vol-% CO₂, you know the CO₂ can continue to be compressed, liquified, or purified further. Conversely, readings of only 60 vol-% CO₂ highlight an issue in the process – giving you the opportunity to address the problem before sending the CO₂ for further processing.

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Point source CCUS

technologies in a nutshell

Technology

Solvent-based scrubbing uses a liquid solvent such as amines or hot potassium carbonate.

How does it work?

1. CO₂ in the flue gas binds to the solvent and is separated from the gas stream (absorption).

2. The solvent is heated in a stripper to release the CO₂ (desorption).

3. The regenerated solvent is cooled and reused.

4. The highly concentrated CO₂ is collected and further treated before storage or utilization.

Why do measurements matter?

CO₂ concentration measurement before absorption and after desorption is essential to evaluate the capture rate, i.e. how efficiently the capture process is performing. A decline in outlet CO₂ concentration can be an indicator of problems like amine degradation, solvent contamination, or faulty equipment.

Detecting this decline with CO₂ measurement enables early intervention to address these problems. Liquid concentration measurement helps to detect degrading of solvent, ensuring high process efficiency.

Solvent-based scrubbing

CASE Point-source carbon capture at Amager Bakke waste-to-energy plant

The Amager Bakke waste-to-energy pilot plant in Copenhagen employs the Vaisala MGP261 multi- gas probe to monitor incoming incinerator exhaust gas and the Vaisala MGP262 to measure the purity of extracted CO₂. The Vaisala GMP251 CARBOCAP®

CO₂ probe is used to check the CO₂ levels after carbon capture in the plant’s exhaust gas.

Photo: Hufton&Crow / ARC Read more:

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Technology

Semi-permeable membrane technology uses, for example, polymeric membranes. The ability to achieve high CO₂ purity and selectivity depends on the membrane type, pressure, temperature, and humidity of the process.

How does it work?

1. The flue gas enters the membrane module and the pores in the membrane selectively allow CO₂ molecules to permeate through, excluding other gases.

2. The separated CO₂ passes through the membrane module and is collected and further treated.

In membrane-type systems, the concentration of CO₂ measured at the inlet and outlet directly indicates the membrane's selectivity and efficiency. The CO₂ concentration data will reveal if a membrane is underperforming, signaling the need for maintenance or adjustment.

Semi-permeable membrane

Technology

Solid-sorbent systems typically use materials like MOF, activated carbon, or zeolites. The key advantages of these types of systems are their high selectivity and high CO₂ capacity. Solid-sorbent systems have many different process configurations and separation techniques.

How does it work?

1. The flue gas passes through a reactor containing a solid sorbent material (adsorption).

2. CO₂ molecules adhere to the surface of the sorbent, which becomes saturated.

3. Depending on the sorbent material, temperature, pressure, and/or moisture can be used to release the CO₂ and regenerate the sorbent. Switching between multiple sorbent containers enables a continuous process.

Understanding CO₂ concentration allows the capacity and saturation point of the sorbent material to be determined. This information is key to optimizing the adsorption and desorption cycles, system performance, and material lifetime. A decrease in capture efficiency might indicate that the sorbent is degrading and therefore

needs replacing.

Solid sorbents

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Direct air capture technology in a nutshell

DAC technology captures CO₂ molecules from the

atmosphere. The need to enrich the CO₂ concentration over a thousand-fold from atmospheric (~400 ppm) concentration to near 100% purity makes DAC highly energy intensive.

Technology

Several DAC technologies exist (e.g. using solid sorbents and liquid solvents) but they are at different stages of development. DAC systems are typically modular, with capture rates ranging from a few kilograms up to megaton- scale.

How does it work?

1. Ambient air is forced through a filter material (solid sorbent).

2. At some point the sorbent becomes saturated and cannot hold any more CO₂.

3. The CO₂ is extracted – e.g. by temperature elevation, pressure reduction/vacuum, or a combination of the two – and collected for further utilization or storage.

Phase 1

Adsorption

Phase 2

Regeneration

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Accurate measurement of low CO₂ concentrations is particularly important at the R&D stage to measure the capture efficiency, understand the process kinetics, and optimize the process. Accurate measurement of low CO₂ is also needed when the CO₂ is extracted from the sorbent.

Accurate humidity measurement and control is also important since humidity usually affects the performance of the sorbent material.

CASE Direct air carbon capture for Soletair Power’s HVAC-integrated capture systems

Soletair Power’s unique solution for extracting CO₂ from air counts on Vaisala’s reliable sensors to accurately measure CO₂ levels. The capture system traps CO₂ from air through temperature vacuum swing adsorption, reducing building energy consumption while maintaining the same level of air quality inside.

Vaisala measurement solutions for CCUS applications

MGP260

In-situ measurement instruments for carbon dioxide, methane and humidity

Indigo500 series transmitter Customizable instrument platform made to improve process measurements GMP343

The most accurate and rugged CO₂ probe for demanding measurements

GMP251 For %-level CO₂ measurements

WXT530

Accurate and reliable weather measurements in a compact package

MGP241 – NEW!

Dedicated carbon capture probe for heavy-duty use

GMP252 For ppm-level CO₂ measurements

PR53GP

Process refractometer for liquid solvent-based carbon capture processes

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The top 5 things to look for in

CCUS measurement instruments

By doing a little research, you can make smarter choices when choosing measurement technologies for point-source or direct air capture applications. Here are the top five things to look for when comparing different manufacturers' offerings:

1.

Instruments that are easy to install and maintain will save you time and money.

2.

Robust technologies will avoid the need for frequent maintenance, saving even more time and money and avoiding process downtime.

3.

Compact probes with a small physical footprint will take up less space, reducing the overall footprint of your CCUS solution.

4.

Measurement technologies that offer long-term

stability will still be

accurate after many years;

those that do not will drift almost immediately.

Sensor drift can mean that your process is operating inaccurately without you even realizing.

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Real-time and in-situ measurement capability avoids the need for manual sampling and carrier gases, and means you can react immediately to address any process variations or potential performance issues.

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CASE Accurate CO

₂

measurement for Carbonaide’s concrete curing process

Vaisala’s CO₂ measurement technology is used by Carbonaide as part of their carbon-curing process, which reduces the

carbon emissions from concrete production by turning concrete into a carbon storage sink. Thanks to Vaisala’s technology, the effectiveness of Carbonaide’s curing process can be efficiently and accurately verified from process measurements without the need to constantly sample the concrete products.

an electrically tunable FPI filter that measures gas absorption and enables a reference measurement at a wavelength where no absorption occurs. The reference measurement compensates for any potential changes in the light source intensity and for contamination and dirt accumulation in the optical path, making CARBOCAP® sensors highly stable over time.

Vaisala HUMICAP® is a capacitive thin-film polymer sensor consisting of a substrate on which a thin film of polymer is deposited between two conductive electrodes. The polymer either absorbs or releases water vapor as the relative humidity of the ambient air rises or falls. As the relative humidity

around the sensor changes, the dielectric properties of the polymer film change, and so does the capacitance of the sensor. The capacitance of the sensor is converted into a humidity reading.

Vaisala is a global leader in measurement instruments and intelligence for climate action. We equip our

customers with devices and data to improve resource efficiency, drive energy transition, and care for

the safety and well-being of people and societies worldwide. With almost 90 years of innovation and expertise, we employ a team of over 2,300 experts committed to taking every measure for the planet.

Vaisala series A shares are listed on the Nasdaq Helsinki stock exchange.

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